As the premier of a great Eastern country that gained independence after a century of humiliating diplomatic history and a history of arduous revolutions, Zhou Enlai did not identify himself with Western theories of international relations, but put forward a set of diplomatic thoughts and strategies with his own characteristics. Foreign scholars have made an in-depth study of his rich diplomatic thought, which can be categorized into the following aspects.
1. The independent and revolutionary stand against imperialism and hegemony.
Foreign scholars believe that anti-imperialism and anti-hegemony is the fundamental position of Zhou Enlai's diplomacy, which represents Zhou's "revolutionary" nature. Ronald notes that "as a dedicated revolutionary, he often clashed with the unequal international order maintained by European diplomacy, and this clash was particularly intense when the latter sought to reinforce this pattern of inequality and to increase the dependence of Asian and African countries on colonialism." Note: Ronald C. Keith, The Diplomatic Career of Zhou Enlai, p. 1. In his later years, even after the rapprochement between China and the United States, he continued to hold high the banner of "uniting all the united forces of the world against colonialism, imperialism and especially the hegemony of the superpowers." Ronald analyzes that Zhou Enlai's insistence on not establishing a firm alliance with any superpower not only demonstrated China's righteousness, but also was "a strategic approach" that gave China a greater range of strategic choices and changed the unequal international political structure.
The revolutionary foreign policy of anti-imperialism and anti-hegemony was based on the principle of "independence". According to Ronald, "independence and autonomy" reflects Zhou Enlai's ideological understanding of imperialism. In Zhou Enlai's ideology, the principle of "independence and self-reliance" prevented China from becoming dependent on the United States or the Soviet Union. He tried to negotiate a successful normalization of Sino-American relations, but the aim was not to unite with the United States, but to build a united front on the basis of "independence and self-reliance". This principle is politically opposed to any foreign interference, but not opposed to international exchanges and technology transfers on an equal and mutually beneficial basis, but is merely an ideological tool in the political struggle against authoritarian dictatorships.
2. A foreign policy combining revolutionary idealism and realism.
Many international relations theorists in the West believe that the Marxist-Leninist approach to diplomacy as an extension of domestic politics is the basis for the irrationality of diplomacy. But some foreign scholars have also justly pointed out that in Zhou Enlai's case, revolutionary justice and rational diplomacy, instead of being in opposition to each other, reached a perfect union. Ronald called Zhou Enlai's diplomacy "rational diplomacy in revolutionary practice". He was pragmatic and opposed to any dogmatism. Although China was "one-sided" at the beginning of the founding of the People's Republic of China, Zhou Enlai responded realistically to the U.S. policy of containment as well as to the contradictions revealed in the Sino-Soviet negotiations. Through diplomatic efforts, he repelled the threat from the United States and its allies at the Geneva Conference and succeeded in bringing China into the ranks of the Asian national independence movement at the Bandung Conference. Nixon believed that the successful normalization of Sino-American relations after the breakdown of Sino-Soviet relations lay in the fact that Zhou Enlai was a pragmatic revolutionary and a statesman who put national interests above ideology. In the West, Zhou Enlai was called a "flexible Bolshevik", an "elastic ****productivist", and a "gifted diplomat", all referring to his realist attitude in diplomacy. realist attitude in his diplomatic activities. Flexible and appropriate compromises enabled Zhou Enlai to adhere to his principles while winning the respect of the other side and achieving one diplomatic victory after another. In Wilson's words, Zhou Enlai realized a clever combination of "idealism and realism".
3, peace ****, seek common ground while reserving differences.
Foreign scholars have unanimously recognized Zhou Enlai as the "initiator" and "architect" of the five principles of peace. Zhou Enlai's ideas of peace and seeking common ground while reserving differences have not only guided China to break the imperialist blockade and resist the pressure of hegemony, but have also been gradually accepted by the international community as a code of diplomacy. According to Vorokhova, in Zhou Enlai's thinking, China adhered to a peaceful foreign policy, believing that it was entirely possible to outwit imperialism by means of peaceful competition. Ronald, on the other hand, argues that Zhou Enlai's code of international relations, based on peaceful ****ing and seeking common ground while reserving differences, was aimed at uniting all forces against neo-colonialism and imperialism. Until Zhou's death, China was committed to an international united front "against the hegemony of the superpowers". Foreign scholars believe that China's diplomacy under the guidance of Zhou Enlai's ideas of peace**** and seeking common ground while reserving differences has achieved great success, which is a great contribution to the theory and practice of international relations.
4. The right combination of patriotism and internationalism.
Zhou Enlai's diplomatic thought insists on "internationalism on the basis of patriotism and patriotism under the guidance of internationalism". According to Vorokhova, it was Zhou Enlai's extensive knowledge of Marxism-Leninism and his rich experience in the world "that made him aware of the necessity of organically combining internationalism and national interests". Foreign scholars and politicians have noted Zhou Enlai's pride in China's long cultural traditions and great revolutionary history, and his abhorrence of Old China's diplomacy after having suffered the pains of imperialist and feudalist rule. Ronald points out that Mao and Zhou likened the creation of the diplomatic corps in the 1950s to "starting a new stove," precisely to create and practice a new diplomacy that would safeguard national interests, independence, and equal international status. On the other hand, Zhou Enlai also realized that nationalism and Han Chinese nationalism were y rooted in China's historical traditions, so when he put forward the "ideological leadership of diplomatic work", he first emphasized "adherence to internationalism and opposition to narrow nationalism". In Zhou Enlai's thought, he always paid attention to the difference between socialism, patriotism and bourgeois chauvinism, and fought against all kinds of narrow nationalism.
5. The idea of international economic cooperation on the basis of equality and mutual benefit.
Foreign scholars have noted China's sincere assistance to Third World countries, while criticizing Western countries for attaching political conditions and demanding privileges in their economic assistance to underdeveloped countries. Vorokhova noted that Zhou Enlai emphasized that equality and mutual benefit and mutual respect for national sovereignty are principles that socialist countries must adhere to in their economic cooperation; Zhou believed that economic cooperation on an equal footing not only promotes the economic development of the countries concerned, but also exerts a favorable influence on the improvement of the international situation as a whole.
(4) Zhou Enlai's Diplomatic Style
Foreign politicians and scholars unanimously gave Zhou Enlai's diplomatic style high marks. Wilson wrote: Zhou Enlai's manners, character and temperament formed a unique charm that was infectious and attractive to those who met him. His compassion, understanding of others, and ability to relate to people of different cultures combined to form the basis of what made him such an important figure on the world's diplomatic stage.
First of all, Zhou Enlai embodied in his diplomatic activities the gentlemanly temperament of politicians in ancient civilized countries, such as friendliness, integrity, humility, patience, elegance, consideration for others and creditworthiness, which left a deep impression on politicians and diplomats of all countries. Nixon wrote that Zhou Enlai's playing different roles did not give people the impression of indecisiveness and backtracking. He was a very shrewd man. "He showed great charm and steadfastness through his graceful demeanor and upright yet relaxed posture. He faithfully maintains personal relationships and the old Chinese rule of never 'tearing your hair out' in politics. Chow's appearance gives the impression of being warm to others, very frank, extremely heavy-handed and yet very sincere." Note: Nixon, The Leader, p. 261. Kissinger also emphasized Zhou Enlai's thoughtfulness and concern for people. Wilson called Zhou Enlai "a man of rare integrity." According to Helen Snow, Zhou Enlai was magnanimous, well-bred, wise and frank, so it is not surprising that East-West relations thawed during the active period of his premiershipNote: Helen Snow, The Years of Traveling in China - Memoirs of Helen Snow, World Knowledge Publishing House, 1985, p. 261. The author was Edgar Snow's first wife. On the other hand, Zhou Enlai's style also demonstrated the extraordinary statesmanlike qualities that he had honed during his revolutionary career, such as acumen, calmness, tenacity, an amazing memory, and the art of skillful negotiation. According to Vorokhova, these characteristics gave Zhou Enlai "divinely inspired abilities" in diplomacy: persuasive power, high energy, superhuman self-control in times of stress, excellent mental ability to gather information from different sources, insight, the ability to articulate one's point of view convincingly and rationally, the ability to harmonize one's self with the norms of the society, and so on. Nixon and Kissinger also used the term Nixon and Kissinger also expressed their respect and admiration for Zhou Enlai with the phrase "a volcano under a crown of ice".
Foreign scholars have also studied Zhou Enlai's diplomatic style. Volokhova summarized four Zhou Enlai in diplomatic practice style characteristics: 1, through the mass media and a large number of "informal channels" to create public opinion and psychological communication conditions; 2, for the negotiation of careful and meticulous preparation; 3, the use of past experience, and strive to seek common ground while reserving differences; 4, communiqué text worded carefully in order to facilitate the future.