1. Aristotle's Mechanics
Mechanics, which first originated in Greece, was systematically summarized in Aristotle's physics. According to this view of physics, which is colored by contemplation and humanity, common motions are divided into three categories. The first category is the motion of objects on the ground; the second category is the motion of objects falling in the air; and the third category is the motion of celestial bodies. Aristotle explained the cause of motion, the motion of objects on the ground is compulsory motion, push a bunch, move a little, do not push, so the force is to maintain the movement of the object; the second and third types of motion belong to the natural motion. The earth is the center of the universe and the natural home of all airborne moving objects. The greater the weight of an object, the greater is its tendency toward its natural position, and so the greater is the speed of its descent; celestial bodies are composed of special materials with special properties, and the celestial bodies are the premises of the gods, so that the motion of the celestial bodies is along the most perfect curve - the circumference - and at the most perfect speed - the uniform speed. -Uniformity of motion. This interpretation, which cannot stand the test of facts, is obviously wrong, but it has influenced and ruled people's thinking for 2,000 years, and it was not until the time of Galileo and Newton that it was completely corrected. This is not only related to the low level of development of productive forces, but also related to the social structure at that time. In the ancient Greek era to engage in experimental work as a lowly thing, should be done by slaves or servants, have the status of the "knowledge" is not moving, but only the endless speech and argumentation. Legend has it that Aristotle used to give his disciples lectures while walking in the garden, so the Aristotelian school is also known as the School of the Free. Therefore, the fatal weakness of ancient Greek physics was that it did not pay sufficient attention to quantitative experiments. Even a very simple experiment can confirm that Aristotle's law of falling bodies is wrong.
The philosophy of scripture was a system of thought that emerged in the Middle Ages in Western Europe. In order to fool and dominate people's minds, the Church distorted and emasculated the reasonable and positive parts of Aristotle's doctrine and promoted the negative parts of it, so that the "transformed" Aristotle's philosophy conformed to the religious doctrines, and his writings became second only to the religious doctrines as an authority. Lenin once pointed out right on the spot: "Monasticism killed the living things in Aristotle's doctrine and immortalized the dead things in it". Since this processed and transformed philosophy arose in the Catholic academies, it is called scriptural philosophy. This philosophy was keen on arguing religious doctrines from abstract concepts, using cumbersome reasoning, and advocating the subordination of reason to faith. It was not interested in experimentation and observation, and did not believe that human feeling was a guide to understanding the nature of things. This philosophy, in the history of science, had a profound effect on the development of science. This was particularly evident in Galileo's struggle with the Church.
A century earlier than Galileo, the Italian Renaissance legend Leonardo da Vinci (Leonardo da Vinci) was the most influential figure of the Renaissance. Leonardo da Vinci (1452~l519) was a multi-talented scientist and artist. He studied the physiology of the human body through dissection, he observed the celestial bodies and studied astronomy, he was proficient in painting and sculpture, and specialized in mechanics and civil engineering, in short, his interests were wide-ranging and involved a variety of disciplines and crafts. In his activities, there is a remarkable feature: the importance of practice, he said: "In the study of a scientific problem, I first arrange for several experiments, because my aim is to decide the problem on the basis of experience, and then to point out why the object has such an effect for what reason. This is the method which must be followed by all who are engaged in the study of the phenomena of nature...We must consult experience in a great variety of situations and circumstances until we are able to deduce from these many instances the universal laws which they contain." Not only that, he also attaches great importance to the combination of mathematics and experimentation in the process of exploring the laws of nature, and understands the importance of quantitative experimentation in the scientific method, and he believes that there is nothing certain in science that can't be done with a mathematical science. He used this method in his study of the strength and mechanics of beams and columns, which yielded quantitative results. Da. These insights and practices of Leonardo da Vinci played an important role in inspiring Galileo to establish experimental natural science.
2. Galileo's life and main scientific activities
Galileo was born in the ancient city of Pisa, Italy, on February 15, 1564, and his father was a broken aristocrat who was good at music and mathematics. As a child, Galileo demonstrated a remarkable ability to produce and observe, making his own moving toys and machines, and began his formal education in 1572, studying at the monastery of Santa Maria, before enrolling at the University of Pisa in September 1581, where he followed his father's wishes and studied medicine. However, he had no interest in medicine. By chance, his interest and attention were directed to mathematics and physics, and in 1583 the Grand Duke of the Duchy of Tuscany, to which Pisa belonged, came to Pisa for the winter, accompanied by a very talented court professor, Ostilio Ricci (1540~1603), who was a friend of Galileo's. During one of his lectures on mathematics, Ricci gave a lecture on the subject of mathematics, which he had been studying for many years. Galileo was fascinated by a mathematical lecture given by Ricci. From then on, his interest in mathematics increased dramatically. As he showed extraordinary understanding of mathematics and superior logical thinking ability, he was taken as a student by Ricci, who guided him to read a lot of mathematical works, especially the works of Archimedes and Euclid. This enabled Galileo to have considerable attainments in mathematics, which played a great role in his later creation of experimental natural science and success.
Galileo's love of mathematics aroused his father's disapproval, and with the family in dire straits, he left the University of Pisa in 1583 without obtaining a degree and returned to Florence to assist his father in running his store. In addition to running the shop, he spent all his time studying mathematics and doing experiments, and from then on he began to study and conduct research independently.
Legend has it that in 1583 he discovered the law of "isochronism of the pendulum" from the phenomenon of the swinging of a chandelier in the cathedral of Pisa, and applied it in practice. The Japanese researcher on the history of science and science education, Seisen Itakura, disputed this legend on the grounds that the chandelier in Pisa Cathedral was made after 1583. This legend was written down in the biography of Galileo by Vincenzo Viviani (1622~1703), a student of Galileo in his later years. But Galileo's invention of the pendulum pulsometer, based on the law of the pendulum and capable of accurately measuring the rate of the pulse, is well documented, and a doctor at the University of Padua mentioned it in his work in 1607, with a drawing.
Between 1585 and 1589 he worked as a governess and taught mathematics, and in 1586 published his first treatise, "The hydrostatic scale of liquids," showing his talent for experimentation. This scale was based on Archimedes' principles of leverage and buoyancy, and it measured the specific gravity of metals accurately and easily. At the same time he wrote an essay on "On the Center of Gravity", which was introduced by Ritchie to Grand Duke Ferdinand I. He also wrote an article on "The Center of Gravity". In search of a career, Ricci instructed Galileo to write letters to influential noblemen and scientists, presenting his findings in order to gain support. In the process, he became acquainted with the Marquis of Guidobaldo, a man of science and courtesy. The Marquis appreciated his knowledge and talent, and expressed his willingness to support and help his research work.
With the recommendation of the Marquis of Guidobaldo, he was appointed in 1589 to the newly created Chair of Mathematics at the University of Pisa, where he lectured mainly on mathematics and astronomy, but was still interested in the study of problems related to motion. The central problem of his research was the motion of a falling body under the action of gravity, and he questioned Aristotle's law of falling bodies and his theory of the causes of motion. Aristotle's theory of the motion of a falling body can be summarized in two points: first, the velocity of a falling body is directly proportional to its weight; second, the velocity of a falling body is inversely proportional to the density of the medium through which it passes. Galileo bluntly criticized this as nonsense. He had great respect for Archimedes, y influenced by the "principle of buoyancy", attempted to Archimedes' theory to explore the laws of falling motion, proposed that the velocity of the object falling is directly proportional to its density; in the water or air falling, the falling speed and the density of the object and the medium between the density of the proportional difference. This assumption of his was reflected in the long treatise On Motion, which he wrote in 1590. Giovanni Battista Benedetti (1530~1590), a Venetian mathematician who was a contemporary of Galileo and had a great influence on him, was a famous impulse speaker at the University of Padua. In his Treatise on Mechanics, published in 1585, he criticized Aristotle's theory of falling motion. He proposed that objects of different sizes composed of the same material on a mountain in a vacuum fall the same distance in the same time, i.e., they should have the same terminal velocity. This is quite different from Aristotle's conclusion that the velocity of a falling body is proportional to its weight. In order to argue this point, he used logical reasoning to refute Aristotle's argument: a heavy object and a light object bound together, let them fall, according to Aristotle's theory, the heavy objects fall fast, light objects fall slowly, the heavy object by the light object constraints, the speed of their fall together must be between their respective speeds of fall; on the other hand, the weight of the two objects bound together should be heavier than the weight of the object, so they fall faster than any of them. On the other hand, the weight of the two objects bound together should be heavier than the weight of the heavier object, so that the velocity of their fall is greater than that of either of them. From this it can be seen that Aristotle's theory of the motion of a falling body is self-contradictory and does not stand up to scrutiny. This succinct and convincing reasoning of Benedetti is often misrepresented in some articles about Galileo's discovery of the law of falling bodies as an ideal experiment first proposed by Galileo, which is really a misrepresentation. The Dutch professor of the history of science, E.J. Dijksterhuis (E.J. Dijksterhuis, 1892~), made this point solemnly in his History of Science and Technology, which he co-authored with R.J. Forbes (R.J-Forbes, l900~).
There is a legend about the falling-body motion that in 1590 Galileo had repeated many times on the Leaning Tower of Pisa in front of all the other teachers, philosophers, and all the students to drop two different weights of spheres at the same time, and refuted Aristotle's theory of the falling-body theory by the fact that the two spheres were looking at the ground at the same time. Although this legend is legendary and widely spread, and even in Pisa and Florence in some museums of wrestling objects still displayed in the year is said to be Galileo experiments with the wooden ball, but unfortunately the evidence is insufficient. In the well-preserved notes and writings of Galileo, and in the conversations and articles of Galileo's contemporaries, there is never any mention of it. The legend is first attributed to Galileo's student Viviani, who described it in his biography of Galileo published in 1654. There are two different views on this legend in history: one is that the Leaning Tower of Pisa experiment is credible and true; the other is that there is no such thing, and that it is merely a legendary description made by Viviani to expand the influence of his teacher. There is, of course, another view that leaves the matter unchallenged.
The first view is held by a group of historians of physics, led by Antonio Favaro, the editor of the Italian national edition of Galileo's works (in its twenty volumes), and among them the famous British philosopher A.N. Whitehead, who ranked the Leaning Tower of Pisa experiment and the Michael Sun-Murray experiment of 1881 as two of the most famous "judgmental" experiments in the history of science. The two most famous "judgmental" experiments in the history of science.
The second view was held by a group of historians of physics headed by the German Galileo's work of the national edition of the editor of the W?rwer, among them the famous historian of science (Herbert Butterfield) and so on.
Historically, there was indeed a man who conducted falling-body experiments, and this man was the Dutch engineer and mechanic Simon Stevin (Simon Stevin, 1548~1620), known as Stevinu (Stevinus). In his "Statics" published in 1586, he introduced a falling experiment he made: "Let us take two lead balls, one of which is ten times heavier than the other, and throw them down at the same time from a height of thirty feet, and drop them on top of a board or something that can give out a clear, zhe ringing sound; then we will see that the lighter ball does not take ten times as long as the heavier one to fall on to the board at the same time, and therefore the sound they make sounds like one sound."
Some rigorously sourced, extensive, and accurately narrated works on the history of physics and biographical dictionaries, such as The Dictionary of Scientific Biography (C.C. Gillispie (ed.), Dictionary of Scientific Biography, Charles Scribner's Sons, New York, 1970-1980): Galileo's experiments with the Leaning Tower of Pisa are referred to with the words "according to legend".
The golden age of Galileo's scientific research was from 1592 to 1610. Galileo, with the full help of the Marquis Guido Bordo, traveled to Venice **** and the country in 1592, and was employed as a professor of mathematics at the University of Padua. Venice, situated on the shores of the Adriatic Sea and far from the Roman Curia, was less controlled by the Church and the academic air was freer. Due to the developed seafaring industry, trade and handicrafts, Venice was economically rich and was one of the strongest countries in the Mediterranean at that time. Padua belongs to the Venetian **** and the country, the University of Padua was one of the famous universities in Europe at that time, known for advocating free research and free thinking in Europe, and welcome people with all kinds of beliefs and new ideas to come to lecture. This environment and atmosphere was very favorable to Galileo's scientific research activities, and it was a good opportunity for him to fully develop his outstanding talent. This period was the golden period of his scientific career, the most fruitful period, and the happiest period of his life. It was here that his scientific conception of the universe was formed.
Galileo studied a large number of problems during this period, especially in mechanics. Such as the motion of a falling body, the motion of a pendulum and on an inclined plane, the motion of a projectile, the synthesis of forces, and so on. In addition to the fluid, thermal problems were also studied, Galileo thermometer was invented in the period of 1592 ~ 1593. 1609 he was attracted by the news of the invention of the telescope by the Dutchman Lippershey (Hans Leppershey, ca. 1570 ~ ca. 1619), which shifted his interest and attention from mechanics to optics and astronomy until 1633 by the Church sentenced to After being sentenced by the Church to life imprisonment in 1633, he resumed the study of mechanics. Most of his work and discoveries on mechanics were made during this period and published in his later years.
Galileo lectured at Padua mainly on Euclid's mathematics, Ptolemy's astronomy, and Aristotle's mechanics. In his spare time, he lectured on fortification and military engineering, combining mathematical knowledge, mechanical experiments and defense engineering, which was very popular among the noble sons of the students.
In 1597, he designed a proportional gauge and compass with military applications, and opened a factory to produce and sell these instruments. Before this, he invented the air thermometer, based on the thermal expansion and contraction properties of gases. It was found to be inaccurate in use, and because he was busy with other work at the time, he failed to improve it further, and it was not until his later years that he discussed the improvement with his student, Evangelista Torricelli (1608~1647). Under his guidance, Torricelli invented the mercury barometer in 1643.
In the study of falling body motion, he found that the object falling in the air, its speed is not only related to its weight and density, but also related to its size and shape, he realized the role of air resistance to the falling body, and realized that the previously proposed "the speed of the object is proportional to the difference between the density of the object and the density of the air, the assumption of the object falling speed is proportional to the difference between the density of the object and the density of the air is wrong, the error in the lack of consideration of the air resistance. He thought that if there were no air, the falling speed of an object in a vacuum might be independent of its weight and density, and that all objects would fall just as fast. He observed that the velocity of an object was constantly increasing as it began to fall from rest. He was convinced that this increase in velocity was taking place in an extremely simple and very obvious way, because he believed that nature acted in essentially the simplest way. As the time of descent increased, the distance traveled by the object increased dramatically, and he envisioned that the distance traveled, s, was proportional to the square of the time of descent, t. He believed that the distance traveled was proportional to the square of the time of descent. In what way does velocity increase to satisfy this relationship? As can be seen from his letter to a friend in 1604, he put forward the hypothesis that the speed is proportional to the distance traveled, repeating the mistake made by Albert of Saxony (about 1316-1390) more than two centuries earlier. From this assumption, after mathematical calculation, the conclusion that "the distance s is proportional to the square of the falling time t" was not obtained, and it was full of contradictions. It was not until around 1609 that the correct relationship between the speed and the falling time, which he proposed, was seen in his notes and articles, and it was proved graphically that the conclusion that "the falling distance s is proportional to the square of the falling time t" could be obtained from this relationship of the change of speed. Therefore, Galileo did not get the correct law of falling bodies from the Leaning Tower of Pisa in 1590, as the legend says, but went through a tortuous and repetitive process.
Galileo hoped to test the correctness of these relationships through experiments to further validate his hypothesis. However, the process of free-fall was too rapid for practical measurement under the conditions that prevailed at the time. In order to "dilute the force of gravity" and slow down the motion sufficiently, he verified the relationship that "the falling distance s is proportional to the square of the falling time t" through the study of the pendulum motion and the elaborate inclined plane experiments, and found the correct law of falling motion. In the Dialogue of the Two New Sciences, published in 1638, the law of falling bodies was described in detail for the first time, pointing out that the distance traveled by an object that begins to fall freely from rest is proportional to the square of the time of falling, and in fact, this ratio is the acceleration of gravity. But Galileo did not give an approximate value for the acceleration of gravity. The first to arrive at this approximation was the Dutch physicist, mathematician and astronomer Christiaan Huygens (1629-1695).
Galileo's inclined plane experiment was a key one in finally confirming that his hypothesis that the distance traveled by a free-falling body is proportional to the square of the falling time was correct. This is not at all like some popular claims that Galileo discovered the law of falling bodies by using the inclined plane experiment to conclude that distance is proportional to the square of time from the distance measured and the time taken. This is contrary to both historical facts and the methodology Galileo used at the time. The method he used was: reasoning from experience, making initial hypotheses, using mathematical tools for deduction, drawing conclusions, and then verifying the hypotheses through experiments. This method is now known as the deductive method. The place and role of experimentation in this method is not to discover laws, but to prove the conclusions obtained by deduction, thus proving that the initial hypothesis is correct and valid. This method has played a major role for many subsequent scientists and for the development of physics.
Galileo, during his time in Padua, in addition to his major contributions to mechanics, made significant achievements in the development of astronomy and Copernicus' heliocentric theory.
In 1594, while recuperating from arthritis at home, Galileo read books about Copernicus' heliocentric theory. Copernicus depicted the structure of the universe, aroused his strong interest, began to study astronomy. In a letter written to a friend in Pisa in May 1597, he expressed for the first time his support for Copernicus' heliocentric theory. In August of the same year, he received from Kepler a copy of his debut book, The Mystery of the Universe. In a reply to Kepler, Galileo again publicly claimed to be a believer in Copernicus and claimed to have discovered some physical arguments in favor of confirming geodesy. His interest in the Copernican doctrine was based not on mechanics but on astronomy, and the appearance of novae from 1604 led to a controversy over Aristotle's treatise on the fastness of the sky. In this controversy Galileo publicly supported Copernicus' theory, delivered three informative lectures, and prepared to publish a work on astronomy. However, these plans were disrupted by a fortuitous event: in 1606, a German in Padua, Meyer, and his pupil, Capra, plagiarized Galileo's invention of the rule of proportions, translated his Italian instructions into Latin, falsely claimed they had invented it, and falsely accused Galileo of being the plagiarist. In defense of his invention, Galileo sued both of them to the school authorities, when Mayer had returned to Germany and Capra was expelled from the school. 1607 he published "A Self-Defense against the Slander and Deceit of Capra" in debating style, and from then on began to write in debating style as a weapon of struggle, which was a great success.
In July 1609, he heard from a friend that Lepage of Holland had invented the telescope, and in August of the same year he made the first telescope with a magnification of three times according to the rumor. He used an organ pipe as a tube, and embedded a plano-convex lens of 5.6 centimeters in diameter and a plano-concave lens at each end. He traveled to Venice and presented it to the Grand Duke. The telescope soon showed its practical value in military and nautical use. In recognition of his achievements, the Grand Duke of Venice made him a tenured professor at the University of Padua, with an increased salary. Not satisfied with the success of the first telescope he had made, he continued to work on it and improve it, and by the end of 1609 he had increased the magnification to 32x, the limit of the Galilean telescope. What is significant is not that he made the first high-magnification telescope, but that he first aimed the telescope at the vastness of the starry sky, creating a new era of studying celestial motions with a telescope and founding telescopic astronomy.
He first observed the Moon and found that its surface was not smooth, perfect and without blemish, as the philosophers of scripture had described it, but rather, like the surface of the Earth, it was uneven, with high mountains and deep valleys, and it was also rotating on its axis. He named the two main mountain ranges on the Moon "Alps" and "Apennines" and drew the world's first map of the lunar surface. Based on the variations of light and dark spots on the lunar surface, he hypothesized that the Moon does not emit light of its own, and that its bright light is the result of reflecting sunlight. He then looked at the planets and found that the planets seen in the telescope were much larger than those seen with the naked eye, while the two stars were not very different, and deduced that the stars were extremely far away from the ground. The Milky Way is composed of countless stars, proving that Bruno's assertion that the universe is infinite is correct. 1610 January 7 this day is the greatest day in Galileo's life, but also an important day in the history of astronomy, he discovered from the telescope Jupiter has satellites, after a few days of observation, found that the satellites*** there are four, and in the orbit of the Jupiter slowly rotating, which is more like a Copernican system of the small picture of the solar system.
This was an important support for the Copernican doctrine. Kepler spoke highly of the book, and with Galileo's consent, Kepler reprinted it in Frankfurt, Germany, in the same year. In support of Galileo, Kepler wrote the article "Dialogue with the Messenger of the Starry World", pointing out that Galileo's discoveries were in complete agreement with his planetary theory.
Galileo was in Padua and missed his hometown of Florence. In order to return home, he dedicated the Starry Messenger and a telescope to Cosimo de Gaulle, Grand Duke of Tuscany in Florence. Cosimo de Medici II, Grand Duke of Tuscany in Florence. In July 1610 he was appointed Professor of Mathematics and Philosophy at the Court of the Grand Duke of Tuscany and Honorary Professor at the University of Pisa. In the same month, Galileo discovered Saturn's olive-shaped "triple star" and mistakenly believed that Saturn had two very close moons. It was not until 46 years later that Huygens correctly suggested that this was due to Saturn's halo.
Galileo returned to Florence in September 1610, after an 18-year absence, to continue his astronomical observations. It was at the end of this month that he discovered the waxing and waning of Venus, and later discovered a similar phenomenon with Mercury. From the fact that the perihelion of Venus and Mercury was different from that of the Moon, it was deduced that Venus and Mercury revolved around the Sun in an orbit between the Sun and the Earth. This is undoubtedly a strong evidence for the Copernican doctrine.
In 1611, he visited Rome and was received by Pope Paul V. He met the Marquis of Cesi (Federico Cesi, 1585-1630), who founded the Society of Li in 1603. The Society of the Lynx (the lynx is a kind of bobcat, which is agile and ferocious, with a sharp gaze, and is named after it, which is a metaphor for the profound power of science) was formed by the first-rate Italian scientists of the time. It was the first influential scientific organization in the history of scientific development, and was composed of the first-rate scientists in Italy at that time. Because of Galileo's academic achievements and reputation, he was elected to the society and became the sixth member.
In 1612 Galileo published a treatise on hydrostatics, Lectures on Floating Bodies, in which he described his development of Archimedes' principles and attacked Aristotle's physical principles. He offended the philosophers of the Academy and the followers of Aristotle, and in 1613 he published a pamphlet, Letters on Sunspots, describing his observations on the activity and shape of sunspots since 1610, which for the first time explicitly expounded Copernicus's doctrine of the conservation of angular momentum and the preliminary concepts of inertia. His views attracted vicious attacks and vilification from those who opposed them in the Church and from the followers of Aristotle, who accused him of propagating heresies and betraying the Bible. 26 February 1616 the Inquisition tried Galileo and issued the following decree: "The idea that the sun is stationary at the center of the universe is foolish, philosophically false, and purely heretical, since it is contrary to the Bible". Copernicus' Theory of the Operation of the Heavenly Bodies was officially declared a banned book, and Galileo was warned against defending Copernicus' doctrine in words and writing.
From then on, Galileo lived in seclusion in a villa outside Florence, conducting research that did not violate the Church's warnings. The study of mechanics, interrupted by the advent of the telescope in 1609, was resumed. He studied accelerated motion, correctly defining uniformly accelerated motion.
The appearance of three comets in 1618 attracted much attention and study. Although Galileo did not come up with any clear theory about the comets, he addressed some misconceptions by pointing out that the comets were real motions of celestial bodies, not optical effects reflected by the sun in a sea of fog.
During this period, the vicious enemies of the Church, who opposed and hated Galileo, stepped up their attacks on him. Galileo could not stand it and decided to fight back. After a long period of preparation, a book of defense of injustice, "The Analyst," was written and published by the Society of the Lynx Li in 1623. At this time came the happy news that his old friend Maffeo Barberini (Monsignor Barberini) was elected Pope Urban VIII (Urban VIII), he decided to dedicate The Analyst to the new Pope, and asked for the lifting of the ban of 1616. The pope expressed his inability to do anything about it, but did not object to his writing a book discussing the doctrines of Copernicus and Ptolemy, the author of which should not draw earth-shattering conclusions. From 1624 until 1630, he spent six years writing the monumental Dialogue on the Two World Systems of Ptolemy and Copernicus (Dialogue on the Two World Systems, or Dialogus) in Italian, a language that was easily accessible to the general public. In order not to violate the warnings of the Church, he gave a four-day conversation on the two cosmic systems in the form of a dialogue between three men. On the first day, he refuted Aristotle's fallacy that the composition and nature of the celestial bodies are completely different from that of the earth, and proved with a large number of astronomical observations that "the heavens are unchanging" and "the earth and the heavens are different" to be false. He put forward the important insight that "motion is not a kind of change, and it does not lead to growth and destruction". On the second day, he argued for the Sunday motion of the earth and used his principle of relativity to refute the idea that the earth does not move. Day three discusses the earth's annual motion. The fourth day discussed the motion of the tides, incorrectly arguing that the dual motion of the earth's rotation and revolution is what produces the tides, and using this as evidence for the earth's motion.
In 1630 Galileo came to Rome with his manuscript to apply for a license to print it. The Marquis of Ceci, who had supported him, died of the plague, and the Instituto dei Lincei, which had been responsible for the publication, was dissolved because of Ceci's death. He had to return to Florence and apply for a printing license there. After many difficulties, he finally obtained a license to print in Florence in 1631, and in March 1632 the Dialogues met the readers in Florence, and a part of it was mailed to Rome. The book was very well received by readers, and the first edition sold out, with demand outstripping supply.
The success of the Dialogue caused great alarm in Rome, and extreme Galileo-haters in the Church falsely accused the Dialogue before the Pope of being directed against and satirizing the Pope, and that Galileo had deceived and fooled him. This infuriated the Pope, who ordered the publication to be stopped immediately, which was in August of that year, and in October the Inquisition summoned Galileo to Rome to stand trial. Galileo was ill and refused to go to Rome. But the Pope was not at all tolerant, despite the intercession of the Grand Duke of Tuscany, Ferdinand II (Grand Duke Ferdinand II) and the doctor's certificate, but to no avail. 1633, January 20, Galileo was carried on a stretcher to Rome to stand trial on February 13, arrived in Rome, and the trial began in April. The trial began in April, and was concluded on June 22nd after three months of harsh interrogation. Under the coercion of the Church, he signed a letter of repentance and vowed that he would "never again, either orally or in writing, say or advocate anything that would arouse the same suspicion against me." The Dialogue was declared a banned book, forbidden to be published or distributed, and he was sentenced to life imprisonment under the watchful eye of the Church. It was initially sent to Siena under the supervision of Archbishop Picclomini (Picclomini, Ascanico). Picclomini, a former student of Galileo, was kind enough to encourage him to pick himself up and continue his studies. This encouraged Galileo to organize the results of his life's work and to continue his experiments and research in mechanics, and at the beginning of 1634 Galileo was allowed to return to the village of Arcetri in Florence, which made it possible for him to visit his two daughters in the convent on a regular basis. Unfortunately, within a few months, his beloved eldest daughter fell ill and died in April of the same year. The loss of his greatest comfort in his old age was a heavy blow. Just when he was discouraged and lost confidence in his work and life, good news came to him: the Dialogues were translated into Latin and published in Strasbourg, Germany, and also translated into English, which was widely disseminated in Europe, and in June 1635, a scientific work summarizing his life-long research in mechanics, the "Dialogues and Mathematical Proofs Concerning Mechanics and Local Motion in the Two New Sciences" (or the Dialogues of the two new sciences), or the "Dialogues", summarized his life-long research in mechanics, and was also published in English. (or Talks on Two New Sciences) was published. His book could not be published in Church-controlled Italy, and in 1637 he gave the manuscript to a friend who took it privately to the Netherlands, where it was published in July of the following year by Elzey of Leiden
.