Trade: mào yì
trade
Trade is a voluntary exchange of goods or services. Trade is also called commerce. Trade takes place in cities. The most primitive form of trade is barter trade, that is, direct exchange of goods or services. Modern trade generally uses media to bargain, such as currency.
The emergence of currency (and later letters of credit, paper money and non-physical currency) greatly simplified and promoted trade. The trade between two businessmen is called bilateral trade, and the trade between two or more businessmen is called multilateral trade. There are many reasons for the emergence of trade. Due to the specialization of the labor force, individuals will only engage in a small type of work, so they must obtain necessities through transactions. The trade between two regions is often because one place has a comparative advantage in producing a certain product, such as better technology and easier access to raw materials.
English interpretation of trade
Trade: Trade is the activity of buying, selling or exchanging goods or services between people, companies or countries.
[Edit this paragraph] Examples of trade
Import and export goods included in customs statistics are classified according to customs supervision and are divided into the following categories:
1 general trade
2. Materials provided by countries and international organizations free of charge.
3. Other overseas donated materials
4. Compensation trade
5. Processing and assembly trade with supplied materials
6. Feed processing trade
7. Consignment and consignment trade
8. Small border trade
9. Processing trade imported equipment
10. Export goods for foreign contracted projects
1 1. Lease trade
12. Equipment and articles imported by foreign-invested enterprises as investment
13. Export processing trade
14. Barter trade
15. duty-free foreign exchange goods
16. Incoming and outgoing goods in bonded warehouse
65438+
18. storage of transit goods in bonded area
19. Imported equipment in export processing zones
other
[Edit this paragraph] ■ Terms of trade
The exchange rate of export commodities and import commodities. Also known as the comparison of import and export commodity prices, it is usually expressed by an index, that is, the comparison index of import and export commodity prices. The calculation formula is: terms of trade index = export price index/import price index × 100. For example, based on the previous year, the import and export commodity price indices are all 100. In the past year, the prices of import and export commodities have increased, but the increase rate is different. If the export price rises by 10% and the import price rises by 5%, the terms of trade index will increase.
The term of trade index higher than the base period means that the price of export goods is higher than that of import goods, that is, the country can exchange less export goods for more import goods, which is beneficial to the country and improves the terms of foreign trade. On the contrary, if the price index of imported goods grows faster than that of exported goods, or even the price index of exported goods remains unchanged or decreases, the terms of trade index is lower than the base period, which means that a country has to export more goods in exchange for the same imported goods, which is obviously unfavorable to the country and is a deterioration of the terms of trade. This change is usually used as an indicator of unequal exchange between developed and developing countries.
Terms of trade refer to the ratio of a country's export commodity price index to its import commodity price index. Based on a certain period, the terms of trade are 100. If the terms of trade in the comparison period are greater than 100, it shows that the country can exchange less export goods for the same amount of imported goods, and the terms of trade are improved, which is beneficial to the country. If it is less than 100, it means that a country needs to export more goods in exchange for the same amount of imported goods, and the terms of trade deteriorate, which is unfavorable to the country.
[Edit this paragraph] ■ International trade
The exchange of goods and services between countries. For the countries concerned, it is foreign trade. The sum of foreign trade of countries constitutes world trade. International trade is the basic form of modern international economic relations, because the monetary and credit relations and scientific and technological cooperation between countries are based on the commodity movement.
A brief history of international trade is formed on the basis of international division of labor and commodity exchange. In slave society, due to low productivity, inconvenient transportation, less commodity circulation and limited international trade, the commodities traded are mainly luxury goods of slaves and slave owners. In feudal society, with the development of social economy, international trade also developed. During this period, China conducted international trade activities with Eurasian countries through the Silk Road, and there were also trade exchanges between countries along the Mediterranean, Baltic, North Sea and Black Sea. The geographical discovery from the end of 15 to the beginning of 16 promoted the development of international trade. At that time, the commodities involved in trade were mainly general consumer goods and luxury goods of feudal owners.
After the capitalist mode of production came into being, especially after the industrial revolution, due to the rapid improvement of productivity, the scale of commodity production continued to expand, and international trade developed rapidly, which began to be carried out worldwide. From17th century to19th century, the foreign trade volume of capitalist countries kept rising. Britain has long been in a monopoly position in international trade. At that time, the commodities involved in international trade were mainly general consumer goods, industrial raw materials and machinery and equipment. /kloc-after entering the imperialist period at the end of 0/9, a unified and all-inclusive world economic system and world market have been formed.
Since then, the first world war and the impact of the 1929 ~ 1933 world economic crisis have greatly damaged the capitalist world economy, and the world trade volume has dropped sharply and stagnated. After World War II, international trade further expanded and developed, and the United States became the largest country in international trade. Since the 1950s, with the continuous improvement of the socialization and internationalization of production, especially the rapid development of productivity brought by the new scientific and technological revolution, international trade has become more active than ever, showing many new features. Manufactured products in trade have surpassed primary products to occupy a dominant position, new products are constantly emerging, and trade methods are increasingly flexible and diverse.
Contemporary international trade is dominated by developed countries, and the United States is still the largest trading country in the world, but its status has declined; The foreign trade of Germany, Japan and other countries has developed greatly; The share of developing countries in international trade is very small, but compared with themselves, foreign trade has also developed greatly and become a force to be reckoned with in international trade. International trade plays an important role in contemporary international affairs and is also of great significance to the economic development of all countries.
International trade theory is a theory to study the law of international commodity circulation. It should clarify a series of basic questions, such as why commodity exchange occurs between countries; What determines the nature and characteristics of international trade in various historical periods, and so on. Generalized international trade theory should also include international value theory and balance of payments theory.
The practice of international trade refers to the completion of a series of commercial activities through an import or export transaction. Generally speaking, it can be divided into three stages: ① preparation before trading. ② Transaction negotiation and contract signing. ③ Performance of the contract.
Foreign trade statistics vary from country to country. Some countries divide imports and exports by borders, and all goods entering the borders are counted as imports, which is called total imports; All goods shipped out of the country are exported, which is called total export, including re-export, that is, imported goods are re-exported without processing. The total import plus the total export is the total trade of a country. Britain, Canada, Australia and other countries use this method to count foreign trade. In some countries, imports and exports are divided according to customs clearance. Although the goods that have entered the country but have not been cleared through customs are not considered as imports, only the goods that have been cleared through customs are considered as imports, which is called special imports. Exports include domestic products shipped out of the customs territory and goods shipped out of the customs territory without processing after import, which is called special export. Special import plus special export is special trade volume. Germany, France, Italy and other countries use this method to count foreign trade. The above two methods do not include transit goods in foreign trade. The import and export of countries are usually unequal, and the difference between import and export in a certain period is called trade balance. Export is greater than import surplus, trade surplus or trade surplus, and export is less than import surplus, trade deficit or trade deficit; Equal import and export is called trade balance.
The scale of international trade is expressed by the volume of world trade. In order to avoid double counting, only the exports or imports of countries are counted, and the world trade volume is based on the world exports or imports. Since the trade volume of countries is the total import and export volume, the world trade volume is not equal to the sum of the trade volume of countries. Since countries generally calculate exports on the basis of FOB and imports on the basis of CIF, the world import volume is always greater than the world export volume. World trade volume is usually calculated in dollars. The actual trade volume is affected by price changes, which often cannot correctly reflect the changes of actual trade volume. Therefore, the world trade volume should be calculated at constant prices in a certain period of time to measure the changes in international trade volume.
There are many ways of international trade: ① According to the mode of cargo transportation, it can be divided into land trade, maritime trade, air trade and mail order trade. Most goods in international trade are transported by sea. ② According to whether there is a third party involved in the trade process, it can be divided into direct trade and indirect trade. The former is the direct trade between commodity producers and consumers; In the latter case, there is a third country intermediary between commodity producing countries and consumer countries, and there are many specific forms. One is that although the goods are directly transported from the producing country to the consuming country, there is no direct buying and selling relationship between the two parties, but trade through a third-country middleman; The other is that the producer countries first transport the products to the third country, and then the middlemen sell the products to the consumer countries. In addition, a country's foreign trade run by foreign trade manufacturers is also indirect trade. ③ According to the number of countries participating in the transaction process, it can be divided into bilateral trade and multilateral trade. Bilateral trade is a direct transaction between producers and consumers. However, a country's products often cannot fully meet each other's needs, which will lead to trade balance, trade imbalance and payment difficulties, which requires the intervention of other countries. Multilateral trade is a large-scale transaction between many countries, which is convenient for all trading countries to get what they need and achieve trade balance. ④ According to payment methods, it can be divided into cash trade and barter trade. Cash trade refers to the direct payment of import payment in currency, and the main means of payment in modern international trade are freely convertible currencies such as US dollar, German mark and Japanese yen. Barter trade means that both parties settle their debts with goods, which can make up for the shortage of foreign exchange and promote the export of domestic products. Because it is difficult to exchange goods directly, a more flexible form of generalized barter trade is often adopted, that is, it is stipulated to exchange several kinds of goods within a certain period, settle accounts separately and balance comprehensively. ⑤ According to the relationship between import and export in the transaction, it can be divided into unilateral import, unilateral export and reciprocal trade. The first two means that a country's exports to other countries have nothing to do with its imports from that country, but they are carried out independently, while the latter means that the import and export transactions between the two countries should be equal. Modern international trade mostly adopts the first two forms.
[Edit this paragraph] ■ Characteristics of international trade
(1) International trade is a foreign-related business activity.
(b) International trade is a transnational transaction with complicated circumstances.
(c) International trade is vulnerable to changes in the international situation and unstable.
The risks faced by international trade are far greater than domestic trade.
(e) International trade lines are long and wide, with many intermediate links.
(6) There are constant commercial wars in the international market and the competition is extremely fierce.
[Edit this paragraph] ■ Basic international trade practices
I. General business processes of import and export trade
(A) the export trade business process
1, preparation before trading.
(1) Confirm the source of goods and make good preparations;
(2) Strengthen the investigation and study of foreign markets and customers, and select marketable and reputable target markets and customers;
(3) To formulate business plans or price plans for export commodities, so as to have a well-thought-out plan when negotiating and trading with foreign countries;
(4) Carry out various forms of advertising and promotion activities.
2. Negotiate export contracts.
3. Performance of export contracts.
(1) Carefully prepare the goods and deliver the agreed goods on time, with good quality and quantity;
(2) Implement the letter of credit, and do a good job in urging, examining and amending the letter of credit;
(3) timely chartering, booking shipping space, arranging transportation and insurance, and handling export customs declaration procedures;
(4) Prepare and prepare relevant documents, submit documents to the bank in time to settle foreign exchange and collect payment.
(B) Import trade business process
1, preparation before trading
(1) Formulate the business plan or price plan of imported goods, so as to be aware of it and avoid acting blindly when negotiating with foreign countries to purchase goods;
(2) On the basis of investigating and studying the reputation of foreign markets and foreign investors, shop around and choose the appropriate purchasing markets and suppliers;
2. Negotiate import contracts
3. The performance of the import contract;
(1) Apply to the bank to open a letter of credit as stipulated in the contract;
(2) Send a ship to the other port to pick up the goods in time, and urge the seller to make preparations for shipment;
(3) Handling freight insurance;
(4) Review the relevant documents, and pay the redemption instruction when the documents are in conformity.
(5) Go through the import declaration formalities and accept the goods.
Second, the use of various international trade methods.
Three. Preventing and handling international trade disputes
[Edit this paragraph] ■ Invisible trade
Income and expenditure that do not belong to the import and export of commodities. Also known as intangible transaction, intangible import and export. Including: labor revenue and expenditure items that occur with the international movement of goods and people, such as freight, insurance, passenger transport, tourism, etc.; Investment income items generated by international capital flows, such as profits, interest, dividends, rents, etc. ; And other income and expenditure items such as funds from overseas institutions, remittances and patent fees. Expenditures belonging to these projects constitute intangible imports; The income belonging to these projects constitutes intangible exports. The income and expenditure of visible trade (trade income and expenditure) and intangible trade (non-trade income and expenditure) constitute the main part of the current account in the balance of payments.
There are many kinds of trade and many technical terms, such as foreign trade, domestic trade, international trade and overseas trade. What is international trade? What is foreign trade? What is overseas trade? A: International trade generally refers to the exchange of goods between countries (or regions) in the world through currency. It includes not only the exchange of tangible goods (in kind), but also the exchange of intangible goods (logistics and technology), which can also be called world trade. Foreign trade refers to the exchange of goods, services and technologies between a country or region and other countries or regions in international trade activities. This is based on the commodity trade activities of a country or region with other countries or regions. Sometimes it is also called ExternalTrade. Overseas trade refers to the foreign trade of some island countries such as Britain and Japan or some island areas such as Taiwan Province Province. What is export trade? What is import trade? What is entrepot trade? A: Export trade is a foreign trade activity that exports goods (including domestic labor services) produced or processed in China to foreign markets for sale. In foreign trade activities, we often encounter two concepts with the word "export" but different meanings. We should pay attention to their differences: one is net export, which means that the export volume of similar goods is greater than the import volume; The second is entrepot trade. This refers to the trade activities of buying foreign goods and exporting them to foreign countries without processing. Import trade refers to the trade activities of importing goods produced or processed abroad (including foreign-owned services) into the domestic market after purchase. Re-export trade is put forward to distinguish it from the direct trade behavior of commodity producing countries and commodity consuming countries. It means that commodity producing countries and commodity consuming countries cannot directly buy and sell commodities for some reason. However, goods must be bought and sold through a third country. The third country is both an intermediary and a consignor, and also gains profits through such transactions. This form is entrepot trade. To participate in this kind of activity, a third country must go through the value transfer activity of goods-buying and selling, but it doesn't have to go through the physical transfer of goods, and it can directly transport goods to producing countries and consuming countries without going through its own country ... What is tangible trade? What is invisible trade? A: Visible trade refers to the transaction of physical goods in import and export trade. It is called visible trade because these goods are visible and tangible. The import and export of tangible trade must go through customs formalities and be reflected in customs import and export statistics, thus forming a country's foreign trade volume in a certain period. At present, for the convenience of statistics, the United Nations classifies tangible goods into 10, 63 chapters, 233 groups and 786. 65,438+0,924 basic projects, including almost all goods traded in China. The names of various commodities in the standard international trade classification are as follows: class 0 food and live animals mainly used for food, class 65,438+0 beverage and tobacco, class 2 non-edible raw materials (excluding fuel), class 3 fossil fuels, class 4 animal and vegetable oils, oils and waxes, class 5 chemicals and related products, class 6 finished products mainly classified by raw materials, class 7 machinery and transportation equipment, class 8 miscellaneous products and class 9. Invisible trade refers to the trade of goods without material form in international trade activities, mainly referring to services, technology and finance. Invisible trade is usually not reflected in the customs export statistics, but in the balance of payments. Invisible trade is an important part of a country's balance of payments. What is the total trade volume? What is specialized trade? A: entrepot trade is to transport goods from the nail country to the second country. Due to geographical reasons, it must pass through a third country. For a third country, although it does not directly participate in this kind of transaction, the goods have to go through customs statistics before entering or leaving the country's border or customs, which constitutes a part of the country's import and export trade. Total trade refers to a statistical method of dividing imports and exports based on borders, also known as the total trade system. Total trade can be divided into Italian imports and total exports. Anyone who enters it. All goods leaving a country's territory are included in the total export, including the export of domestic products, the re-export and re-export or transit of foreign goods. Total imports and total exports constitute total trade. At present, there are more than 90 countries and regions such as the United States, Britain, Japanese, Canadian and China. ] Special trade refers to the statistical method by which the customs divides import and export standards. Specialized trade, also known as specialized trade system, can be divided into specialized import and specialized export. Specialized import refers to foreign goods entering the customs territory and paying customs duties, which can only be called specialized import after being released by the customs. Specialized export refers to domestic products shipped out of the customs territory from China and re-exported goods shipped out of the customs territory without processing after import. Professional imports plus professional exports constitute a country's total professional trade. At present, countries that adopt specialized trade statistics methods include Germany, Switzerland and France. A: There are similarities and differences between international trade and domestic trade. * * * Same-sex performance: (1) has the same status in social reproduction. International trade is engaged in the exchange of goods and services between countries, while domestic trade is the exchange of goods and services between countries. Although the scope of activities is different, they are all commercial activities and are in the exchange link and intermediary position in the process of social reproduction. (2) there are * * * the same way of commodity movement. The transaction process of international trade and domestic trade is similar, but the way of commodity circulation movement is exactly the same, that is, G-W-G W-G. Lv Shang's commercial purpose is to gain more commercial profits through exchange. (3) Like their basic functions, they are all influenced and restricted by the laws of commodity economy. The basic function of international trade and domestic trade is to exchange goods through the media, that is, to buy and sell. Financing, warehousing, transportation, customs declaration and other activities must serve them; At the same time, everyone must follow the basic laws of commodity economy, such as the law of value, the law of supply and demand, and the law of saving circulation time. These laws will affect international and domestic trade to some extent. Whether engaged in international trade or domestic trade, we must follow these economic laws and never violate them. The main differences are: (1) different languages, laws and customs. ; International trade activities will first encounter differences, and these obstacles must be overcome first, otherwise it will be impossible to negotiate and sign contracts normally, handle trade disputes and conduct market research. Although domestic trade will encounter some differences in language and customs, the differences are much smaller. (2) Countries have different systems of currency, weights and measures, customs, etc. In international commodity exchange, there are many problems, such as the need to pay in foreign currency, frequent exchange rate changes, great differences in weights and measures and customs systems among countries, which complicate international commodity exchange activities. In contrast, domestic trade is much simpler. (3) The economic policies of different countries are different. The economic policies of various countries mainly play a role in their own economic development, but they will also affect the development of international trade to a certain extent. Many policies will also change due to different economic situations and different rulers. There are also financial policies, industrial policies, import and export management policies, tariff policies and so on, which must be studied in international commodity exchange activities. The content of domestic trade research is much less. (4) The risk of international trade is greater than that of domestic trade. Commodity exchange can not be separated from competition, and naturally there are considerable risks. But in contrast, the risks of international trade are more and greater. It is manifested as credit risk, commercial risk, price risk, exchange rate risk, transportation risk and political risk.
[Edit this paragraph] Trade protectionism
Trade protectionism is a basic type of foreign trade policy, which is opposite to trade freedom.
It means that the state takes various measures to intervene in foreign trade to protect the domestic market from the influence of foreign businessmen.
Product competition, and give domestic exporters preferential treatment or subsidies to reward exports. Its main contents are: in
On the import side, the state has taken various measures to restrict imports, such as imposing high import duties, import quotas,
The import licensing system and foreign exchange control protect the domestic market from foreign competition; In terms of exports, for the country,
Exporters give cash subsidies and various financial incentives to encourage commodity exports. "Reward only for entry"
This is the basic feature of trade protectionism.
[Edit this paragraph] Free trade
The main points of free trade theory are:
(1) Free trade can form a mutually beneficial international division of labor. Under free trade, countries can specialize in producing products with greater advantages or less disadvantages according to natural conditions, and compare the richness of benefits and factors. This international division of labor can bring many benefits, such as the benefits of specialization, the optimal allocation of factors, the saving of social resources and technological innovation.
(2) expanding the real national income. Countries develop sectors with comparative advantages according to their own endowment conditions, and the factors will be reasonably and effectively distributed and utilized, and then trade less for more things, thus increasing national wealth.
(3) Under free trade, due to the import of cheap goods, the state expenditure is reduced.
(4) Free trade can strengthen competition, reduce monopoly and improve economic benefits. Under the condition of free trade, enterprises should compete with foreign counterparts, which will eliminate or weaken monopoly power and promote a country's economic growth in the long run.
(5) Free trade is conducive to improving profit margins and promoting capital accumulation. Foreign trade can stop the downward trend of domestic profit rate, reduce costs, improve income level, increase capital accumulation and make the economy develop continuously through the adjustment of commodity import and export.
[Edit this paragraph] Trade terms in international trade practices
In international trade practice, due to the different legal systems, trade practices and customary practices of different countries, the international understanding and operation of various trade terms are also different, which is easy to cause trade disputes. In order to avoid differences and disputes in the interpretation of trade terms among countries, some international organizations and business groups have made unified explanations and provisions on certain trade terms, among which the most influential ones are:
Incoterms)； for the interpretation of trade terms formulated by the International Chamber of Commerce; Warsaw-Oxford Rules); Formulated by the International Law Association; The revised American foreign trade definition 194 1 formulated by some American business groups.
Because the above rules for interpreting trade terms are widely used in international trade, they have become general international trade practices. These international conventions for explaining trade terms have played an active and important role in all historical stages of international trade development. As international trade practices are one of the sources of international trade law, in the process of countries actively seeking the unification of international trade law, especially through the constant revision of Incoterms by the International Chamber of Commerce, the role of international trade practices has become more significant and effectively promoted the development of international trade practices.
International trade practices have been paid more and more attention by governments, legal circles and trade circles in various countries. International legislation and legislation in many countries have clearly stipulated the effectiveness of international trade practices. For example, the United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods, which came into effect on June 1 988+1October1,fully affirmed its role. The convention stipulates that if the parties do not exclude the practices applicable in the contract, or the practices that both parties already know or should know, and the practices that are widely adopted and often observed in international trade, even if the parties have not explicitly agreed to adopt them, they can be regarded as the practices that the parties have tacitly agreed to, so the practices are binding on both parties. Another example is the Law of People's Republic of China (PRC) on Foreign-related Economic Contracts, which states: "If there are no provisions in People's Republic of China (PRC) laws, international practices can be applied". It can be seen that in order to negotiate and perform contracts and use international trade practices reasonably and correctly, international trade practitioners must understand various international practices in trade terms in order to make appropriate choices and correct explanations in practical business. Now we will explain various international trade practices of trade terms, which are briefly introduced as follows:
I. General Rules for the Interpretation of International Trade Terms 1990
Incoterms 1990 was revised and promulgated on the basis of Incoterms 1980, which came into effect in July 1990.
(1) Reasons for amending "1980 General Provisions"
1. In order to meet the needs of increasingly frequent electronic information exchange, the world has entered the information age. Electronic data interchange (EDI) is more and more widely used in international trade, and the practice of replacing paper documents with electronic information is increasing day by day, which makes "paperless trade" gradually become a reality. In this situation, how to ensure that the corresponding electronic information has the same legal status and legal effect as the original paper document is a very realistic and urgent problem. This problem can only be solved by trade practices and laws that develop with practice, which is also the most important reason why the International Chamber of Commerce revised Incoterms 1980.
2. In order to meet the needs of the development of transportation technology and the change of transportation mode brought about by the development of container transportation, the traditional single maritime transportation has developed into multimodal transportation, and the handover place of goods has gradually changed from the traditional "port-to-port" handover to "door-to-door" handover. In addition, the appearance of ro-ro and ro-ro transportation for loading and unloading vehicles makes the original trade terms unable to meet the needs of real business. Therefore, in view of this situation, it is very necessary to adjust and modify the relevant trade terms, which is another important reason for amending the General Rules.
(II) Major changes in "1990 General Provisions"
The general rule 1990 has changed a lot compared with the general rule 1980. Therefore, the promulgation and entry into force of General Provisions 1990 marks a significant development of international trade practices. In the "1990 General Rules", there are obvious changes in the types of trade terms, their classification and arrangement methods, the international coding and scope of use of trade terms, the standards for the division of obligations between buyers and sellers, and the use of documents.
trade barrier
Most trade barriers have the same principle, which is to increase the cost of trade and make commodity prices rise. Trade barriers are repeatedly imposed between two or more countries to deal with other countries, and the resulting disputes are called trade wars.
Economists believe that trade barriers will reduce economic efficiency, which can be explained by the theory of comparative advantage. In theory, free trade means removing all trade barriers except products related to health or national security.
In fact, even countries that encourage free trade will subsidize a lot of industries or agriculture, such as steel and rice. Subsidies from developed countries to export products are often called by developing countries as hurting people and endangering the survival of the same industry in developing countries.