Nowadays, IP networks use 32-bit addresses, which are expressed in dotted decimal, such as 172.16.0.0. The address format is: IP address = network address + host address or
IP address = host address + subnet address + host address The subnet mask is set according to certain rules, which is the same as the IP address, and the length of the subnet mask is also 32 bits, with the left side being the network bit, represented by the binary digit "1"; the right side being the host bit, represented by the binary digit "1"; and the right side being the host bit, represented by the binary digit "1". The left side is the network bit, which is represented by the binary digit "1"; the right side is the host bit, which is represented by the binary digit "0".
The division of subnets is actually the process of designing a subnet mask. Subnet mask is mainly used to distinguish between the network ID and host ID in the IP address, it is used to mask a part of the IP address, from the IP address to separate out the network ID and host ID. subnet mask is composed of four decimal number value "in the middle of the "." Subnet mask is a value consisting of four decimal numbers separated by a ".", such as 255.255.255.0. If it is written in binary form as:11111111.11111111.11111111.00000000, where the "1" bit separates out the network ID, the "0" bit separates out the host ID, that is, through the IP address and the subnet mask and the subnet mask for the logical operation of the "and", the network number.
The subnet mask does not stand alone; it is used in conjunction with the IP address. A subnet mask is used to divide an IP address into a network address and a host address.
IP addresses are categorized into 5 types depending on the network ID, Class A addresses, Class B addresses, Class C addresses, Class D addresses and Class E addresses. So how to divide ip address?
1, class A IP address
A class A IP address consists of a 1-byte network address and a 3-byte host address, the highest bit of the network address must be "0", the address range from 1.0.0.0
to 126.0.0.0. There are 126 available class A networks. available Class A networks, each capable of hosting more than 100 million hosts.
2. Class B IP address
A Class B IP address consists of a 2-byte network address and a 2-byte host address, the highest bit of the network address must be "10", and the address range is from 128.0.0.0 to 191.255.255.255. There are 16,382 Class B networks. There are 16,382 networks available, each capable of holding more than 60,000 hosts
.
3. Class C IP Addresses
A Class C IP address consists of a 3-byte network address and a 1-byte host address, and the highest bit of the network address must be "110". The range is from 192.0.0.0 to 223.255.255.255. Class C networks can be up to more than 2,090,000, each capable of holding 254 hosts.
4. Class D addresses are used for multipoint broadcasting (Multicast).
The first byte of a Class D IP address begins with "lll0", which is a specially reserved address. It does not point to a specific network and is currently used in Multicast. A multicast address is used to address a group of computers at a time, and it identifies a group of computers that *** enjoy the same protocol.
5. Class E IP addresses
Begin with "llll0" and are reserved for future use.
All-zero ("0.0.0.0") addresses correspond to the current host. The all "1" IP address ("255.255.255.255") is the broadcast address of the current subnet.
Within each of the three main types of IP addresses, three areas are reserved for private addresses, which are more commonly known as ip addresses. The address ranges are as follows:
Class A address: 10.0.0.0 to 10.255.255.255
Class B address: 172.16.0.0 to 172.31.255.255
Class C address: 192.168.0.0 to 192.168.255.255
(1) A Class A address
The range of Class A address is 0.0.0.0 to 126.255.255.255, and the default network mask is 255.0.0.0. A Class A network uses the first set of digits to represent the address of the network itself, and the next three sets of digits to serve as the address of hosts connected to the network, i.e., the high end of the digits is 0, the next 7 digits represent the network ID, and the remaining 24 digits represent the host ID. Class A addresses are assigned to networks with a large number of hosts (direct personal users) and a small number of local networks. An example is the IBM network.
Class A addresses are appropriate for networks with fewer networks and more nodes. the number of networks is 128 and the number of nodes per network direction is 1,600.
(2) Class B Addresses
Class B addresses range from 128.0.0.0 to 223.255.255.255, with a default network mask of 255.0.0.0. Class B addresses are assigned to medium-sized networks. 10 at the high end, the next 14 bits represent the network ID, and the remaining 16 bits represent the host ID.
Class B addresses are suitable for a moderate number of networks and nodes, with 16,000 networks and 64,000 nodes per network.
(3) Class C address
Class C address range: 192.0.0.0.0.~223.255.255.255, the default network mask: 255.255.255.0; Class C address is assigned to small networks, such as general local area networks (LANs) and campus networks, which can be connected to the number of hosts is the smallest, and the use of the user belonging to the number of segments to be managed. Class C networks use the first three sets of numbers to indicate the address of the network, the last set of numbers as the host address on the network, that is, the high end of the bit 110, the next 21 bits indicate the network ID, and the remaining 8 bits indicate the host ID.
Class C addresses are suitable for the case where the number of networks is large and the number of nodes is small, with a network number of 2 million, and the number of nodes in each network is 256.
For example, if you say "131.108.1.56 subnet mask 255.255.255.0
This IP and subnet mask are uniform, can we say that the address belongs to B and the mask belongs to C?", it is not appropriate. , is not appropriate. Subnet masks are not part of the classification of IP addresses.
What is an IP address and how are IP addresses categorized?IP address is the address used to uniquely identify each host or device in a TCP/IP network, IP address consists of 32 bits (*** four octets) of binary composition, IP address is divided into two parts, the left part of the network number is used to identify the network where the host is located; the right part is used to identify the host itself. Hosts connected to the same network must have the same network number.
Distinguishing between different classes of IP addresses is done by the bootstrap bit (highest bit) of the IP address:
How many classes of IP addresses are there? How are they categorized?Definition of the IP protocol, classification and characteristics of IP addresses
What is the IP protocol, how are IP addresses represented, how many classes are there, and what are the characteristics of each?
For ease of addressing and hierarchical construction of networks, IP addresses are categorized into five classes, A, B, C, D, and E. Only classes A, B, and C are used in commercial applications
.
The IP protocol (Inter Protocol), also known as the Internet Protocol, is a datagram protocol that supports interconnections between networks,
which, along with the TCP protocol (Transmission Control Protocol), forms the core of the TCP/IP family of protocols. It provides complete functionality for interconnections, including IP datagrams that specify the format of IP addresses within an interconnected network.
Inter In order to communicate between nodes connected to the Internet,
each node (computer on the network) must be assigned an address that is unique across the network,
which is called an IP address.
The current IP address (IPv4: IP version 4) is represented by 32 binary bits, with each 8-bit binary number being an integer,
spaced by a decimal point, e.g., 159.226.41.98, and with four sets of 8-bit binary numbers throughout the IP address space,
consisting of an address (similar to a troop number) that indicates the network on which the host resides
It consists of the address of the network on which the host is located (like a troop number) and the identification of the host on that network (like a soldier
's number in the troop) **** the same.
For ease of addressing and hierarchical construction of networks, IP addresses are categorized into five classes, A, B, C, D, and E.
Only classes A, B, and C are used in commercial applications.
* Class A address: Class A address network identification by the first group of 8-bit binary numbers,
host identification in the network accounts for three groups of 8-bit binary numbers,
Class A address is characterized by the network identification of the first binary digit must take the value of "0".
It is not difficult to calculate that Class A addresses allow 126 network segments, each allowing approximately 16.7 million hosts, and are typically assigned to networks with
a large number of hosts (e.g., backbones).
* Class B address: The network identity of a Class B address is represented by the first two 8-bit binary digits,
and the host identifiers in the network account for two 8-bit binary digits.
A Class B address is characterized by the fact that the first two binary digits of the network identifier must take the value of "10".
Class B addresses allow 16384 network segments and 65533 hosts per network, and are suitable for networks with a large number of nodes
(e.g., area networks).
* Class C address: Class C address network identification by the first three groups of 8-bit binary numbers,
host identification in the network accounts for a group of 8-bit binary numbers,
Class C address is characterized by the network identification of the first three binary digits must take the value of "110".
A network with a Class C address is allowed 254 hosts and is suitable for networks with a relatively small number of nodes (e.g., campus networks).
To make it easier to remember, it is customary to use four decimal numbers to represent an IP address,
separated by a period "." between the decimal numbers. is used to separate the decimal numbers.
This method of representing IP addresses is also known as dotted decimal representation. If expressed in this way,
the IP address range for class A networks is 1.0.0.1-127.255.255.254;
the IP address range for class B networks is 128.1.0.1-191.255.255.254;
the IP address range for class C networks is The IP address range for Class C networks is 192.0.1.1-223.255.255.254.
Due to the tightness of network addresses and the relative surplus of host addresses, subnet masks are taken to assign segment numbers.
The TCP/IP protocol is independent of the lower data link and physical layers, which is an important feature of TCP/IP. Because of this
, it can widely support physical network architectures consisting of the lower two protocol layers. TCP/IP has been used to connect
intercontinental, national, and interregional networks...
What is an IP address?
How are IP addresses categorized? Class B: 128.0.0.0~191.255.255.255, default subnet mask/16, i.e., 255.255.0.0; Class C: 192.0.0.0~223.255.255.255, default subnet mask/24, i.e., 255.255.255.0; Class D: 224.0.0.0~239.255.255.255, generally used in multicasting Class E Class E: 240.0.0.0~255.255.255.255 (where 255.255.255.255.255 is the broadcast address of the whole network), Class E addresses are generally used for research purposes.... IPv4 also has a private address, that is, such as the internal LAN address, respectively: 10.0.0.0 ~ 10.255.255.255; 172.16.0.0 ~ 172.31.0.0; 192.168.0.0 ~ 192.168.255.255.255 ip address how to categorize theIP address is TCP /IP network used to uniquely identify each host or device address, IP address by 32-bit (*** four octets) binary composition, IP address is divided into two parts, the left network number part used to identify the host where the network; the right part used to identify the host itself. Hosts connected to the same network must have the same network number. -2 (network number cannot be all 0s or all 1s)-1 (127 is the loopback address)}The number of hosts each network can have is 16777214{224-2 (host bits cannot be all 0s or all 1s)}
Range of decimal representation: 1.0.0.1-126.255.255.254
Class B have 254 hosts {28-2}
Decimal representation range: 192.0.0.1-223.255.255.254
Class D address: 1110xxxxx.xxxxxxxxxx.xxxxxxxxxx.xxxxxxxxxx.xxxxxxxxxxxxxx
Class D addresses are used for multicasts, with the first 4 bits of 1110 bootstrapped and the The last 28 bits are the multicast address ID.
Decimal representation range: 224.0.0.0-239.255.255.255
Class E address: always guided by 1111 four bits
Class E addresses are used for research purposes
Decimal representation range: 240-
The IP address is provided by the InterNIC (Internet Information Center) unified allocation to ensure the uniqueness of the IP address, but there is a class of IP addresses can be used directly for the intranet without applying, which is Private Address, Private Address will not be forwarded by any router on the INTERNET to access the INTERNET must be through the NAT/PAT conversion, in order to access the INTERNET. NAT/PAT conversion to public IP access.
These Private Addresses are:
10.0.0.0-10.255.255.255 (one Class A address)
172.16.0.0-172.31.255.255 (16 Class B addresses)
192.168.0.0 -192.168.255.255 (256 class C addresses)
How are IP addresses categorized?
IP addresses are made up of 24-bit binary numbers and are categorized into four groups. For example: 192.168.0.1 This is an IP address.
IP addresses are categorized according to the range of intervals in which the first digit belongs.
IP addresses can be divided into the following classes of addresses:
Class A IP addresses Addresses range from 1.0.0.0 to 127.255.255.255
Class B IP addresses range from 128.0.0.0-191.255.255.255
Class C IP addresses range from 192.0.0.0- 223.255.255.255
Class C IP addresses range from 192.0.0.0 to 223.255.255. 223.255.255.255
Class D IP address range 224.0.0.0 to 239.255.255.255
Taking the example of 192.168.0.1 just now, let's check the first digit, i.e., 192, in which range we view it falls exactly in the Class C address range.
How is the IP address range categorizedNowadays, IP networks use 32-bit addresses in dotted decimal notation, such as 172.16.0.0. The address format is: IP address = network address + host address or IP address = host address + subnet address + host address.
Types of IP addresses:
When the Internet was first designed, for ease of addressing and hierarchical construction of the network, each IP address consisted of two identifiers (IDs), a network ID and a host ID. All hosts on the same physical network use the same network ID, and a host on the network (including workstations, servers, and routers on the network, etc.) has a host ID that corresponds to it. IP addresses are categorized into five types based on the network ID, Class A addresses, Class B addresses, Class C addresses, Class D addresses, and Class E addresses.
1. Class A IP address:
A Class A IP address consists of a 1-byte network address and a 3-byte host address, the highest bit of the network address must be a "0", and the address range is from 1.0.0.0 to 126.0.0.0. There are 126 Class A networks available, each of which can accommodate more than 100 million hosts. There are 126 Class A networks available, each with a capacity of more than 100 million hosts.
2. Class B IP Addresses:
A Class B IP address consists of a 2-byte network address and a 2-byte host address, the highest bit of the network address must be "10", and the address range is from 128.0.0.0 to 191.255.255.255. There are 16,382 Class B networks, and each network can host more than 100 million hosts. There are 16,382 available Class B networks, each capable of holding more than 60,000 hosts.
3. Class C IP Addresses
A Class C IP address consists of a 3-byte network address and a 1-byte host address, and the highest bit of the network address must be "110". The range is from 192.0.0.0 to 223.255.255.255. There can be more than 2.09 million Class C networks, each capable of holding 254 hosts.
4. Class D addresses are used for multipoint broadcast (Multicast).
The first byte of a Class D IP address begins with "lll0", which is a reserved address. It does not point to a specific network and is currently used in Multicast. A multicast address is used to address a group of computers at a time, and it identifies a group of computers that *** enjoy the same protocol.
5. Class E IP addresses
Begin with "llll0" and are reserved for future use. An all-zero ("0.0.0.0.0") address corresponds to the current host. The all "1" IP address ("255.255.255.255") is the broadcast address of the current subnet.
Within each of the three main types of IP addresses, three areas are reserved for private addresses with the following address ranges:
Class A addresses: 10.0.0.0 to 10.255.255.255
Class B addresses: 172.16.0.0 to 172.31.255.255
Class C addresses: 192.168.0.0 to 192.168.255.255
The first set of digits for a Class A address is 1 to 126. note that the digits 0 and 127 are not used as Class A addresses; the digit 127 is reserved for the internal return function, whereas the digit 0 indicates that the address is a local hosptial and is not transmittable.
The first set of digits for a Class B address is 128 to 191.
The first set of digits for a Class C address is 192 to 223.
Representation ranges for each type of address:
1. Class A address
Class A addresses are represented in the range of 0.0.0.0 to 126.255.255.255, with the default netmask The default network mask is 255.0.0.0; Class A addresses are assigned to networks that are particularly large in size.Class A networks use the first set of digits to represent the address of the network itself, and the next three sets of digits to serve as the addresses of the hosts connected to the network. It is assigned to large networks with a large number of hosts (direct personal users) and a small number of local area networks. An example is the IBM network.
2. Class B Addresses
Class B addresses range from 128.0.0.0 to 191.255.255.255, with a default netmask of 255.255.0.0; they are assigned to medium-sized networks in general.
Class B networks use the first two sets of numbers to indicate the address of the network, and the last two sets of numbers to represent the addresses of the hosts on the network.
3. Class C address
Class C address range: 192.0.0.0~223.255.255.255, the default netmask: 255.255.255.0; Class C address is assigned to a small network, such as a general LAN and campus network, which can be connected to the number of hosts is the least, the use of the users belonging to the division into a number of network segments for management. Class C networks use the first three sets of numbers to indicate the address of the network, and the last set of numbers as the host address on the network.
4. In fact, there are also class D and class E addresses. However, these two types of addresses are used for special purposes and are only briefly described here: Class D addresses are called broadcast addresses and are used for special protocols to send information to selected nodes. class E addresses are reserved for future use.
What is the IP address 231.0.0.1? What exactly does it do? Please helpA Class D address does not distinguish between a network address and a host address, and the first four bits of its 1st byte are fixed to 1110.
(2) Class D address range: 224.0.0.1 to 239.255.255.254
Class D addresses are used for multicasting.
The first byte of a Class D IP address begins with "lll0", which is a specially reserved address. It does not point to a specific network, and this class of address is currently used in Multicast. A multicast address is used to address a group of computers at a time, and it identifies a group of computers that *** enjoy the same protocol.
What is the role of trademark classification
Commodity classification is also used as the basic unit for applying for trademark registration procedures and payment of fees.
As we all know, the trademark is to distinguish the source of goods or services of a sign, each registered trademark is designated for a particular commodity or service. For example, when mentioning Changhong, people will think of color TV sets; when mentioning Maotai, people will think of wine; when mentioning Mecca, people will think of cosmetics and so on. It should be said that there is no such thing as a trademark that exists independently of the goods or services. Therefore, in the application for trademark registration, the correct expression of the goods or services to be designated and the class to which it belongs, is the trademark applicant (agent) will first encounter problems.
Many different departments for management, statistics and other work needs to be classified goods. For example, from the point of view of national economic management, usually divided into two categories of industrial products and agricultural products, industrial products and heavy industrial products and light industrial products, heavy industrial products can be divided into metallurgical industrial products, mechanical industrial products and so on. National trademark authorities for the purpose of trademark registration and management needs, also need to classify goods. Trademark registration and management should be said to be a large, complex systematic project, goods and services classification is a basic work of the Trademark Office. China currently has more than seven million registered trademarks, if there is no set of scientific classification management system, to retrieve, query, access to a trademark, like a needle in a haystack, almost impossible.
It is for the trademark search, review, management of the needs of certain commodities with *** the same attributes together, organized into a class, all goods and services *** divided into 45 categories, the formation of the "trademark registration with the classification of goods and services" that we want to describe. For example, "oils and greases for industrial use, lubricants, articles for absorbing, spraying and bonding dust, fuels (including gasoline for motors) and illuminants, candles, wicks", etc., are grouped together to form a class (Class 4); for example, "surgical, medical, dental, and veterinary instruments and apparatus, prostheses and dentures, orthopedic articles, suture materials", etc., together to form another class (Class 10). The Trademark Office's search system is set up in accordance with the categories of goods and services; the Trademark Bulletin is organized according to the categories; the applicant must apply for trademark registration in accordance with the categories; the Trademark Office issued to the registrant of the trademark registration certificate must also indicate the goods or services and the categories to which they belong.
The classification of goods and as a basic unit of application for trademark registration procedures and payment of fees. That is, a trademark in a category on the application for registration for a formalities, pay a basic fee. Such as an applicant in the medical chemicals, proprietary Chinese medicines, Chinese herbal medicines, medicinal wines, medical nutritional products, air purification preparations, veterinary drugs, pesticides, sanitary napkins, dental fillings on the application for registration of trademarks, although the designated goods up to ten, but because of these commodities are in the same category (5 categories), so only need to handle a formalities, pay a basic fee (i.e., a standard a class). While another enterprise applied for the registration of the trademark although only need to be used in the drawing pen and painting pigment, but need to fill out two applications, in the two categories of application, and pay two basic fees, because these two goods belong to two categories, namely, drawing pen belongs to the 16th class, the painting pigment belongs to the 2nd class.
In the past, the trademark authorities of each country formulated their own classification lists of goods according to their own national conditions and understanding of goods for use by the trademark authorities and applicants for trademark registration. The classification of goods is not static. It will be gradually increased and revised with the abundance of commodities and people's understanding of commodities. Since 1923, China has formulated and published five commodity classification lists. By the 1950s, the world economy had developed considerably and international exchanges became more frequent. Some countries are of the view that the use of their respective commodity classification lists can no longer adapt to the international connection of trademark affairs, which brings trouble to trademark owners registering abroad and is not conducive to the development of the trademark cause and economic development. The trademark authorities of these countries believe that there is a need for an internationally harmonized classification of goods for trademark registration. In this case, the Nice Agreement.
The Role of International Classification
The Nice Agreement is an international convention with multinational participation, whose full name is the Nice Agreement Concerning the International Classification of Goods and Services for the Purposes of the Registration of Marks. The Agreement was signed on June 15, 1957 in Nice, a city in the south of France, and on April 8, 1961 it entered into force. The member states of the Nice Agreement have now grown to 65. On August 9, 1994, our country joined the Nice Union. The purpose of the Nice Agreement is to establish a *** with the international classification system of goods and services for trademark registration, and to ensure its implementation. At present, the International Classification *** includes 45 classes, including 34 classes of goods and 11 classes of service items, *** containing more than 10,000 goods and service items. The goods and services that the applicant needs to fill in are generally said to be among them. This classification is used not only by all Nice Union members, but also by non-Nice Union members. The difference is that members of the Nice Union can participate in the revision of the classification, whereas non-members do not have the right to do so. At present, more than 130 countries and regions in the world have adopted this classification. Since November 1, 1988, China has adopted the international classification, which greatly facilitates trademark applicants, standardizes the management of trademark authorities and closely links international trademark affairs. Especially since China's accession to the Nice Agreement in 1994, we have actively participated in the revision and improvement of the Nice Classification, and have added a number of goods with Chinese characteristics to the Nice Classification. The Nice Classification is revised periodically, firstly, to add new goods, and secondly, to adjust the goods that have already been included in the Classification in accordance with the new point of view, in order to make the goods more inherently uniform. The 10th edition of the Nice Classification has been in force since January 1, 2012.
The Nice Classification consists of two parts, a list of goods and services organized by category and an alphabetical list of goods and services.
The Classification List by Category arranges goods and services in the order of categories 1-45. Each category has a category number and a title, and the title of each category summarizes the characteristics and scope of the goods included in the category, and finally lists all the items of goods or services included in the category, with each item of goods or services having a sequential number for easy searching. In addition, each category has a note on the main commodities included in this category, this category and the relevant categories of commodities how to distinguish between how to divide the marginal categories of goods explained, this note on the division of some confusing categories of commodities is of great help. For example, the third category, the class name "laundry bleach and other materials, cleaning, polishing, stain removal and abrasive preparations, soaps, fragrances, essential oils, cosmetics, perfumes, toothpaste, tooth powder." The note reads, "This class consists mainly of bath products and cosmetics. It includes in particular: deodorants for personal use; hygiene products for make-up. Excluded in particular are: chemicals for cleaning chimneys (Class I); stain removers for use in manufacturing processes (Class I); deodorants for non-personal use (Class V); grinding stones or hand-abrasive wheels (Class VIII).
The other part of the classification is an alphabetical list of goods and services. The World Intellectual Property Organization published in English, French order of goods and services classification list. China's trademark authorities also arranged and printed in hanyu pinyin order of goods and services classification table. The use of this table to check the general categories of goods as convenient as a dictionary. Such as a production of television sets and video cameras, to apply for trademark registration in these two commodities, in accordance with the order of hanyu pinyin, it is easy to find these two commodities belong to the 9th class; and, for example, a production of food products to apply for trademark registration in milk and ice cream, with the help of the table, you can also quickly find these two commodities belong to the 29th class (milk) and the 30th class (ice cream).