The Spring and Autumn and Warring States Period saw the collapse of the slave system and the establishment of the feudal system. This distinctive feature of the era is reflected in the following aspects:
(1) Economically: During the Spring and Autumn and Warring States Periods, the use of iron tools and the popularization of oxen plowing marked a significant increase in social productivity. China's feudal economy was further developed, especially in the north the achievements were more prominent. The leap in productivity caused a revolution in production relations. During the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period, the well-field system (communal land) was gradually replaced by the feudal system of private ownership of land, which was finally established through the changes in the laws of various countries.
(2) Politically: During the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period, the wars of rivalry among the vassals destroyed the old order of slavery and brought disaster and suffering to the people. But the results of the wars accelerated the process of unification, promoted national integration, and accelerated the pace of change. As the power of the emerging landlord class grew, they carried out the reform of the law successively in the vassal states, and a new feudal system was finally established. The state of Qin, which was the most thorough in its reforms, became the strongest among the vassal states, and later developed into the core force of unification.
(3) Culturally: culture is a reflection of the politics and economy of a certain period. During the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period, the development of economy promoted the progress of science and technology; the change of society contributed to the unprecedented activity of thought and the prosperity of literature and art.
In the Spring and Autumn and Warring States Periods, the old system and the old order of rule were destroyed, the new system and the new order of rule were being established, and the new class forces were growing. Hidden in this process and constituting the root of this social change was the revolution in the productive forces characterized by the iron weapon. The development of the productive forces eventually led to the movement of change and the establishment of the feudal system in various countries, as well as to the flourishing of thought and culture.
2, compare the similarities and differences between the wars of rivalry in the Spring and Autumn period and the wars of annexation in the Warring States period
(1) similarities: ① both have the purpose of expanding the territory and plundering the population. ② Spring and Autumn War and Warring States annexation in the impact of the big swallow small, strong and weak, reducing the number of vassal states, accelerating the disintegration of slavery and promote the formation of feudalism. At the same time, they inevitably caused great damage to people's lives and production.
(2) Differences: ① the Warring States annexation of feudal annexation war, and the Spring and Autumn War is only a slave-owning powers war for supremacy. (2) the Spring and Autumn war of rivalry to promote national integration, conducive to the growth of feudal factors. And the Warring States annexation wars led to the creation of a great feudal empire after being transformed into feudal unification wars.
(3) The wars of rivalry and annexation among the vassals led to a reduction in the number of vassals, a gradual integration of the various nationalities, and a desire of the people for unity, so that a united tendency was formed.
3, compare the spring and autumn reform and the warring states reform of the different, and analyze its different root causes
(1) different: the spring and autumn reform of the purpose is to rich and strong, to lay the foundation for the hegemony; content for the appointment of talent, reform of the internal affairs, production, military; characterized by maintenance of the old system under the premise. The purpose of the Warring States reforms was to establish and consolidate the dictatorship of the landlord class and to complete unification; the contents were to abolish the well-field, to recognize private ownership of land, to abolish the privileges of the slave-owning aristocracy, and to realize centralization of power; and it was characterized by the replacement of slavery by the feudal system.
(2) Reasons: different levels of productive forces. During the Spring and Autumn period, slavery had only begun to disintegrate; during the Warring States period, the state ownership of land in slavery had been largely replaced by feudal private ownership of land, and the landowning class had gained strength.
4. Understanding of the Ideas of the Hundred Schools of Thought
(1) The Substance and Influence of Laozi's Political Thought:
Laozi advocated inaction in politics, and in the face of a transformed society, his advocates essentially represented the interests of the declining slave-owning aristocracy. Although no ruler at the time would adopt his political ideas, his thoughts had a profound impact in later generations. After the social upheaval (especially at the beginning of the Western Han Dynasty, when his ideas once became the ruling ideology), the society needed to recuperate and recuperate, and Laozi's idea of doing nothing contributed to the economic recovery, social stability and development. However, the idea of doing nothing was not conducive to strengthening centralized power and had a negative side.
(2) How to recognize the class essence of Confucius:
The textbook says that Confucius advocated the preservation of the "rites" of the Zhou Dynasty and the "order" of the nobility and the inferiority, which was the conservative part of his political thought. In the face of social change, it was clear that Confucius, like Laozi, represented the interests of the declining slave-owning aristocracy. Therefore, Confucius traveled around the world, but none of the rulers adopted his ideas, and finally returned to the state of Lu, where he was at peace with his teaching and educating.
(3) How to evaluate the thinking of Mohism:
Moism reflects the interests of small producers, and advocates that the principle of love and non-attack has a progressive side, but it does not conform to the law of social development and cannot be realized in a class society.
(4) The essence and status of Mencius' thought:
Mengzi advocated "benevolent government" and "the people are noble and the ruler is light", the fundamental purpose of which was not for the people's consideration, but for the long-term stability of the ruler, and his advocates represented the interests of the emerging landowning class. His ideas represented the interests of the emerging landlord class, but in the face of the war of annexation, how to be invincible in the war, Mencius's ideas are powerless, so Sima Qian commented on Mencius, "Pedantry is far and broad in things. Mengzi's thought had a great influence on the later generations, and it was an important source of the "people-oriented" thought of the later generations.
(5) How to recognize Xunzi's materialism:
Matter determines consciousness, and the use of iron and oxen during the Warring States period, the development of productive forces, and the improvement of mankind's ability to conquer and transform nature were reflected in Xunzi's thinking, which led to the materialism of "making use of heavenly destiny". This idea also greatly inspired people to conquer nature and transform the confidence of nature, but it also over-emphasized the subjective initiative of man, did not recognize the subjective initiative of man must be played to respect the objective law as a prerequisite. The destruction of the environment by human beings in ancient societies was related to this.
(6) Dialectical analysis of the ideas and status of the Legalists:
Han Fei Zi's ideas: history moves forward, the present will prevail over the ancient, and advocates change in accordance with the needs of reality; the rule of the country "based on the law", "the law is not a noble"; and advocates the establishment of a monarchical autocracy, centralized feudal state. They advocated the establishment of a feudal state with centralized power. Legalists represent the interests of the emerging landlord class, its ideas dare to face the social reality of great change and upheaval, conform to the trend of unification, conducive to the establishment and consolidation of the feudal system, to adapt to the needs of the social reality, so only the Legalist ideas in the various schools of thought at that time is the most useful, the reform of the reforms of various countries is the best proof. However, the excessive "rule of law" can easily lead to tyranny and intensify class conflicts, which should be evaluated in two ways. The death of the Qin Dynasty due to the tyranny and short-lived, showed that the legalist thought could not maintain the long-term stability of the rule.
(C), difficult knowledge analysis
1, the use of productive forces, relations of production, the relationship between the economic base, the superstructure to analyze the Spring and Autumn and Warring States period of social change
From the above illustration, we can see that the fundamental cause of change: the development of productive forces; the direct cause: the tax issue (Lu's "mu", Qi's "mu", "mu", "mu", "mu"). " in Lu, "the decline of taxation" in Qi); social conditions of change: economic base - feudal landlords private land ownership system, class base - the emerging The landowning class was the driving force behind the change.
2. Reasons for the success of Shang Yang's change of law
(1) The change of law conformed to the development trend of history and the situation of the state of Qin, which was the root of the success of the change of law.
(2) The change of law was strongly supported by Duke Xiao of Qin, and the implementation of the change of law measures was resolute, which was also an important reason for the success of the change of law.
(3) Shang Yang dared to fight against the old forces regardless of his personal safety.
Reminder: Shang Yang's change of law was the inevitable result of the development of the times, and also a manifestation of the development of the times, therefore, Shang Yang's change of law embodies the principle of "advancing with the times".
3. The Reasons for the Prosperity of Ideology and Culture in the Spring and Autumn and Warring States Periods
(1) The improvement of productive forces and the development of social economy provided a material basis for the development of ideology and culture.
(2) The change of class relations, the collapse of slavery, and the establishment of the feudal system provided political prerequisites for the prosperity of thought and culture.
(3) The turbulent social environment and drastic social changes made the ideological world unusually active, which forced people to think, and a large number of thinkers expressed their opinions from different perspectives, thus forming the situation of "a hundred schools of thought contending for supremacy".
(4) The rulers of various countries, based on the war for hegemony and political needs, have been recruiting talents and treating intellectuals favorably, and it has become a common trend to raise "scholars", and this kind of relaxed environment and superior status is also conducive to the prosperity of culture.
(5) The rise of private schools and the emergence of the wind of lectures, creating a large number of intellectuals, talented, dare to express their political views of the thinkers.
(6) The increasing integration of nationalities led to the expansion of cultural exchanges among various nationalities and enriched the culture of the Central Plains.
(7) The achievements of the Xia, Shang and Zhou dynasties laid the foundation for the subsequent prosperity of science, technology and culture.
Ideology and culture are the reflection of politics and economy in the ideological sphere, so their prosperity cannot be separated from political and economic factors.
Economic and Social Changes during the Spring and Autumn and Warring States Periods (below)
Sources and Notes
Smelting of Iron and the Popularization of Iron Tools
The use of iron had already begun during the Shang Dynasty.At the end of 1972, an iron-bladed copper battle-axe was unearthed from the Shang Dynasty site of Taisi, Gaocheng, Hebei Province. This weapon, embedded in the copper battle-axe body in front of the casting of iron battle-axe blade, blade by scientific identification, proved to be forged iron. This iron is not artificial smelting, but from the meteorite iron (meteorite explosion fell to the ground in the meteorite, there are more iron or pure iron called meteorite iron), because at that time do not know artificial iron, so the use of meteorite iron in social production has no practical significance.
In recent years, archaeological discoveries in the Sanmenxia Guo cemetery unearthed a copper handle iron sword, scholars believe that this is the late Western Zhou Dynasty in China found the earliest real iron. At the beginning of the Spring and Autumn Period of the Western Weekend, the poem "Poetry - Qin Feng - Team" from the era of Duke Xiang of Qin (reigned 777 - 766 years ago) had the line "Team Kong Fu", which said that the four horses driving the car were black as iron and especially fat. The use of iron to describe the color of the horses indicates that iron was already in use and familiar to the people. Iron at that time is cooked iron, usually called "block iron", is the ore in the 800 ~ 1 000 ° C conditions, by the charcoal reduction obtained, out of the solid block containing a large number of impurities. This kind of iron has several shortcomings: First, after refining a furnace, can not flow out of the furnace, remove the iron, the hearth to be damaged, can not be continuous production, low productivity, small output. Secondly, it needs to be forged repeatedly to make some simple shaped artifacts. Third, the carbon content is very low, the texture is very soft. Due to the above shortcomings, this kind of iron could not be universally applied. From the current unearthed iron objects, at the latest in the late Spring and Autumn period, China has invented pig iron smelting technology. Pig iron is smelted under the conditions of 1 150 ~ 1 300 ° C, out of the liquid state, can be produced continuously, can be casting molding, high carbon content, the texture is relatively hard. This makes smelting and molding efficiency as well as product yield and quality are greatly improved. So from block ironmaking to pig iron, is a leap in the history of ironmaking technology. Europe until the 14th century A.D. only refined pig iron, 1,900 years later than our country. Jiangsu Liuhe Chengqiao unearthed in the late Spring and Autumn period of a piece of iron, after scientific analysis, is the white mouth pig iron. This is the earliest unearthed pig iron objects in China until now, but also the world's earliest pig iron objects.
The promotion of iron tools, from the written record, the "state language - Qi language" has this content: "dollars to cast swords and halberds, try to dogs and horses; evil gold to cast (chú, hoe)." "Dollar" refers to bronze, and "bad gold" refers to iron, which was used for casting production tools. It can be seen that in the middle of the Spring and Autumn Period, Qi had already used iron agricultural tools. Zuozhuan" Zhaogong twenty-ninth year (513 years ago) records: the state of Jin with iron casting tripods, tripods cast with Fan Xuanzi made the book of punishment. The iron used for casting the tripod was collected from the people as a military tax. It can be seen that at that time, Jin had a lot of iron. To the criminal book cast in the iron tripod, not a simple matter, even if the criminal book text is not much, there should be some provisions, the tripod will not be too small, the required flow state of cast iron is not too little, otherwise, it is impossible to cast success. Visible at least to the late Spring and Autumn period, the Central Plains cast iron smelting technology has been relatively mature.
From the unearthed artifacts, Jiangsu Liuhe Chengqiao late Spring and Autumn Period Wu Tomb, Hunan Changde Deshan Chu Tomb, Changsha Chu Tomb, as well as Shanxi Houma Beixizhuang site and other unearthed iron, are late Spring and Autumn Period relics. There are iron blocks, iron bars, iron chippings, iron (qiāng, an ancient type of axe), iron (bó, an agricultural tool for hoeing fields and removing grass), iron, iron spares, steel swords, and so on. Some of these iron objects were forged from cooked iron refined by the block-refining method, while others were cast from pig iron. According to the underground excavation, combined with the documentary records, iron farming tools have been used in a considerable range during the Spring and Autumn Period. At that time, some copper tools (such as copper hoe, copper shovel, etc.) and a large number of wood, stone, bone, mussels and other raw materials made of agricultural tools are still in the field of production plays a role. Although the use of iron in the Spring and Autumn Period is still in the early stages, but it marks the level of development of agricultural productivity has entered a new stage. As a new factor of productivity, iron tools created conditions for developing mountains and forests, expanding arable land, developing water conservancy and transportation, and promoting social production. Since liberation, from Liaoning in the north, south to Guangdong, east to Shandong Peninsula, west to Shaanxi Sichuan, including Qi, Chu, Yan, Han, Zhao, Wei, Qin seven countries of the vast area of the middle of the Warring States period sites, there are iron excavated, and a variety of large quantities. In the Wei tombs of the Warring States period in Huixian County, Henan Province, 58 pieces of iron agricultural tools were unearthed, including plowshares, ? , hoe, spade, sickle, axe, etc., of which two "∨" shaped plowshare, although there is no earth turning mirror device, but has been able to play the role of breaking the soil and ditching. The textbook of "the Warring States period of iron farming tools" that is for the Huixian unearthed iron. The widespread use of iron agricultural tools excluded wooden and stone agricultural tools and gained a dominant position. This facilitated the felling of woods, the construction of water conservancies, the reclamation of wasteland and deep plowing, and promoted the development of agricultural production.
Oxen Plowing
Originally, the Central Plains used the foot-operated plowing equipment called Lei?ê, where the plowman held the handle of the Lei?ê in his hand and stepped on the blade with his foot to drive the edge of the blade into the soil and push it outward to dig up a piece of soil. Plowing is the process of digging up the soil one piece at a time, and the plowman needs to dig up one piece and take a step back. This kind of backward intermittent plowing method is more forceful and less effective. Legend has it that as early as the Shang Dynasty, oxen were used to drive the car, and some people think that there were oxen plowing in the Shang Dynasty according to the hieroglyphics of the oracle bone inscriptions of the word "plow", but the argument is not enough. By the Spring and Autumn Period, there is no doubt that ox plowing was already in use. In this way, plowing became a continuous forward movement with less force but better effect, which was an important reform of the plowing technology. In the Spring and Autumn and Warring States periods, ox-plowing began in the East, and after Shang Yang's change of law, the state of Qin came to the forefront, and ox-plowing was also widely used. At that time, horses were also used to plow the fields, and Shang Yang, in order to emphasize agriculture, stipulated, "Those who steal horses will die, and those who steal oxen will be added." In the "Treatise on Salt and Iron", it is said that "in the ancient times", people used horses to do their work, pulling carts and "stopping at the plow". The "Ancient Ones", as the Han people put it, refers to the Warring States period and the Qin Dynasty. The combination of animal power and iron tools provided the conditions for intensive farming.
Advancement of Agricultural Technology and the Rise of Agricultural Science
The Spring and Autumn and Warring States Periods saw significant progress in agricultural technology. Plowing technology in the words of the time called "deep plowing and hoeing", plow the field to deep, weeding to fast. Irrigation methods, the Central Plains has been widely used to irrigate with orange water pulleys, instead of holding the past to draw bottles to irrigate the primitive method. During the Warring States period, farmers knew how to fertilize their fields, and Xunzi - Fortune of Nations has the words "fertilize the fields with more manure", which shows that they knew the importance of fertilization at that time. Not only know the application of animal manure, but also know the use of grass ash and green manure, the weeds cut and burned into ash or water to make it rot, used as fertilizer, improve the soil. The importance of accumulating fertilizer application is an important factor in improving agricultural production. Europe to the 10th and 11th centuries, only began to fertilize, 1 300 ~ 1 400 years later than our country. The Warring States period has attached importance to the selection of good varieties, "long bucket stone, take the top seed", that is to say, to improve food production, we must select the top varieties. People have begun to study the soil, advocating that the first to distinguish the nature of the soil, select the crops suitable for planting in a certain soil to sow. The remarkable progress of agriculture in the Warring States period created a fine tradition of intensive farming in China. At that time, people already knew how to change the soil with human power. That is, plowing should be prioritized according to whether the land is dry and hard or wet and soft; dry and hard land must be ploughed first, and wet and soft land can be ploughed later. Highly dry fields should pay attention to moisture conservation; low wet fields should pay attention to drainage. In order to create excellent conditions for the growth of crops, the ridge should be wide and flat, ditch should be small and deep; seedlings must be arranged in rows to facilitate ventilation; fertilizer to stay dense seedlings, thin land to stay sparse seedlings, fertilizer seedling sparse will increase the ineffective tiller, thin seedling dense will be due to the lack of water and fertilizer supply and premature death. These practices are in line with the principles of agricultural science. At that time, people also mastered the importance of plowing season. "Time" of the wheat growth and development of good, strong plants, spikes, deep color, heavy wheat grain, less insect pests, high flour rate, taste fragrant, eat the hunger beneficial; "first time" wheat seedlings born too early, vulnerable to pests and diseases; "After the time" wheat seedlings born fragile, sparse spikes, color and lustre is not good. Therefore, it is emphasized that cultivation must be timely.
Improvement of agricultural production in the Warring States period
The widespread use of iron agricultural tools, the development of irrigation and agricultural technology, especially the farmers to improve the enthusiasm for production, the yield per unit area has increased. According to Li Yul on the early years of the Warring States Wei agricultural production estimates, an acre of land in ordinary years can produce one and a half stone of corn, equivalent to today's acres of output of nine buckets. According to the Records of the Grand Historian (史记-河渠书), all the land irrigated by the canal water of the State of Zheng could harvest one bell per mu. A bell is six stone four dou, discount today mu yield three stone eight dou four liters, more than two thousand years ago in the late Warring States production conditions, the yield is very high indeed.
Dujiangyan
Li Bing was appointed governor of Shu County by King Zhao of Qin around 256 to 251 BC. The upper reaches of the Minjiang River are characterized by high mountains and deep valleys, with fast-flowing water. Once it reaches the Chengdu Plain, the flow rate suddenly slows down, and the sand and gravel it carries are then deposited, silting up the river channel. Every summer and fall, the water rises suddenly, often flooding below the irrigation county (in present-day Sichuan). After the rainy season, there would be drought again. In order to irrigate farmland and turn the water damage into water conservancy, Li Bing summarized the experience of his predecessors in water management, made the best use of the situation, and relied on the local people to build the Dujiangyan Water Conservancy Project in the city of Dujiangyan, where the Minjiang River flows out of the mountains and into the plains.
Dujiangyan water conservancy project consists of two major systems: the head of the canal and the channel. The head of the canal project consists of three main parts: the Dujiangyan Fish Spout, the Flying Sand Weir, and the Baobuikou. Dujiang fish mouth is built in the Minjiang River mid-stream water diversion construction project, which divided the Minjiang River water into two, the east is called the inner river, for irrigation canal water, the west is called the outer river, is the Minjiang River's main stream. And in the Dujiangyan city near the south bank of the Min River, cut open the foot of Mount Yubi, forming a pile of stones that are separated from the pile and a narrow inlet is the bottle mouth. Neijiang water through the bottle mouth into the dense as a spider web of channel system. The size of the water inlet are placed "bucket door", when you need water to open the bucket door, water can be closed when the bucket door. "Drought is to draw water to soak, rain is to plug the water gate" ("Huayang Guozhi - Shu Zhi"). When the water of Minjiang River rises in summer and the mouth of the Dujiang River is flooded, Lidui becomes the second water diversion. Immediately after the Neijin Gang embankment and away from the pile between the construction of the fly sand weir, to regulate the amount of water in the Neijiang River, the flood surge, the Neijiang River water can be diffused over the fly sand weir into the outer river, to ensure the safety of the Neijiang River Irrigation System. Dujiangyan water conservancy project is a comprehensive water conservancy project mainly for irrigation and also for flood control and transportation, which not only lifted the disaster of flooding of Minjiang River, but also facilitated shipping and irrigated more than three million mu of farmland, making Chengdu Plain a "land of heaven" with "water and drought from the people, not knowing of famine", and guaranteeing a good harvest in case of drought or flood. ("Huayang Guozhi - Shu Zhi"). Dujiangyan location selection is appropriate, the project layout is reasonable, supporting the tight integrity, construction of local materials, the entire system of self-flowing irrigation, with the effort to save and benefit, more than two thousand two hundred years has been benefiting the people. Dujiangyan total branch canal more than five hundred and twenty, the total length of the channel is about one thousand one hundred kilometers, before the liberation of the project is in disrepair, the irrigated area is reduced to more than two million mu. After the liberation, it was vigorously improved and expanded, and now the irrigated area has been expanded to more than eight million mu. It is not only a pearl in the history of China's water conservancy, but also occupies an important position in the history of the world's water conservancy.
Development of Handicrafts
Before the Spring and Autumn Period, commerce and industry were mainly operated by the government, the labor force were slaves, and there were very few private industrialists and businessmen. After the middle of the Spring and Autumn period, with the gradual establishment of private land ownership and the emergence of feudal production relations, the industrial and commercial sector also gradually left the officialdom's keeping and developed in the direction of private operation, with the emergence of private handicrafts and independent individual handicraftsmen, who were mainly engaged in the production of commodities. They generally engaged in production within their own homes, and some of them set up workshops and stores within the urban markets. During the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period, Gongshu Bang (Ban), who was famous for his skills, was one such independent craftsman. Later he was worshipped as the ancestor of craftsmen. At the same time, government merchants could no longer monopolize trade, and private merchants became increasingly powerful. For example, a great merchant of Zheng, Ching Gao, on his way to sell cattle, heard that the Qin army had come to attack Zheng, and when he was too late to report back, he claimed to be a messenger sent by Zheng, and offered 12 oxen and 4 pieces of leather to reward the Qin army. Because of his improvisation, he pretended to be the king's order and treated the Qin army, so that the Qin army mistakenly thought that Zheng had already been informed of the Qin's military action and was prepared for it, and then canceled the sneak attack. The other famous merchants were Fan Li (范蠡), a great physician of the state of Yue, and Zi Gong (子贡), a disciple of Confucius. Confucius traveled around the world and relied to a large extent on Zigong's financial help. From the development of industry and commerce and the change of the status of industrialists and businessmen, it can be seen that in the field of industry and commerce is gradually free from the control and bondage of slavery, and the new factors of feudal relations are also growing day by day.
Iron smelting was the most important handicraft sector at that time. Due to the accumulation of years of experience, people already had preliminary knowledge of mining. Guanzi - Earth Counts" said: "If there is dansha on the top, there is gold underneath; if there is magnetite on the top, there is copper and gold underneath; if there is lingshi on the top, there is lead, tin and red copper underneath; if there is ochre on the top, there is iron underneath." The "Shanhaijing - Wuzangshanjing", written in the Warring States period, recorded that there were more than three dozen iron ore mountains with clear locations to be traced. Mountains and Seas Classic of Zhongshan Jing" "Guanzi ground counting chapter" is the statistics "out of the iron of the mountain 3,600 nine", this number is not exaggerated, but this time the discovery of the iron ore mountain must be a lot. From today's Hubei Daye copper green mountain found in the Warring States copper mine site seems to be, vertical shafts up to more than 50 meters deep, used as a traffic aperture. Flat lanes were developed in a horizontal direction to excavate the ore. From the bottom of the ore layer from the bottom up layer by layer to open up the flat lane, in the underground preliminary sorting, will be poor ore, gravel and dirt filled with waste lane, to ensure that most of the lifting out of the rich ore. These indicate that the Warring States period mining technology has been quite advanced, the initial solution to a series of complex technical problems such as underground ventilation, drainage, transportation, lifting, lighting and tunnel support.
What marked the economic breakthrough in the Spring and Autumn Period was the invention of pig iron smelting technology. The progress of iron smelting technology mainly lies in the improvement of the furnace and the increase of furnace temperature, which can not be achieved without expanding and improving the blower equipment. According to Wu Yue Chun Qiu (Spring and Autumn Annals of Wu Yue), when King Helu of Wu was casting two swords, he used "three hundred boys and girls to fill the charcoal with drums", and then "The gold and iron were moistened, and then the swords were made. Explained that the furnace used at that time is quite a lot of jewels. During the Warring States period, the iron smelting furnace used rows of jewels to drum the wind. The large-scale smelting site has several hundred craftsmen. Archaeologists found six iron smelting workshops in the old city of Linzi, the largest of which covers an area of about 400,000 square meters. Yan State Yan Shimdu is also an important iron smelting site, in its ruins found iron smelting workshop three, a total area of 300,000 square meters. There were iron smelting centers in various countries, the most famous one being Wan of Chu, the so-called "Wan Kui (iron and steel) Iron (shī), as miserable as an insect (chài, scorpions and other poisonous insects)", which indicated that the quality of weapons produced in Wan was very high. Handan of the State of Zhao is an important iron smelting industry, not only the Handan people Guo Zong iron smelting industry, rich than the king, is the beginning of the Western Han Dynasty iron smelting industry Zhuo's ancestors are also Zhao people, because of iron smelting to get rich.
Cast iron tools were widely used during the Warring States period, but the early cast iron was hard and brittle white iron, easily broken. At that time, the working people in the production practice created the cast iron by high-temperature annealing, so that it becomes a relatively high hardness, but also has a relatively good toughness of malleable cast iron. According to the different conditions of heat treatment, the main decarburization becomes white heart malleable cast iron; graphitization becomes black heart malleable cast iron. After the middle of the warring states, iron was so widely used, the invention and development of malleable cast iron played an important role. Foreign white malleable cast iron was first invented by the French in 1722. Black heart malleable cast iron was invented by American in 1826. Since then a fairly long period of time, people call the white malleable iron "European malleable iron", the black malleable iron called "American malleable iron". In fact, China's invention of malleable cast iron than their early two thousand years.
Spring and Autumn period of Qi's sea salt cooking industry and Jin's Hedong salt cooking industry have flourished. Hedong salt was regarded as the "national treasure". During the Warring States period, the sea salt cooking industry of Qi and Yan was more developed, with more sea salt production and wide circulation. Meanwhile, when Li Bing was the governor of Shu County, the well salt in Sichuan had already begun to be developed.
Textile industry. At that time, sericulture was common in the countryside of the Yellow River basin and the middle and lower reaches of the Yangtze River, all of which produced silk fabrics. Among them, the silk fabrics produced by Qi and Lu were more exquisite. Qi women's red (workers) textile technology is extremely famous, the production of silk fabrics are widely marketed, the so-called "crown and belt, clothes and shoes all over the world" ("Shi Ji Guoshi Liezhuan"). At that time, the vassal states commonly used silk fabrics as ornaments, up to 5,000 pi at a time. Hemp fabrics were more common than silk fabrics, which were the main clothing material of the working people at that time, and also the main commodities at that time. Changsha unearthed fragments of hemp cloth, more than the general cotton cloth to be close (hemp cloth warp yarn 280 per 10 centimeters, 240 per 10 centimeters of weft yarn, and now cotton in the leading fine cloth, per 10 centimeters of warp yarn 254 weft yarn 248), indicating that hemp weaving technology at the time of the high level.
Lacquer craft in the Spring and Autumn also attached to the wood industry. After the middle of the Warring States rapidly developed into an independent handicraft sector. Early Warring States lacquer wood tires are still very heavy, often in the fine carved wood with colored lacquer. After the middle of the Warring States period, the wood became lighter, the color of the lacquer black, Zhu, yellow, purple, white, green and so on more than ten kinds of, often in the artifacts with the color of the lacquer painted into a variety of images and patterns. Some of the edges of daily-use lacquerware are also inlaid with gold or copper edges, the so-called gold and copper buttons. This all shows the progress of the lacquer craft.
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