2. 1928 A. Fleming discovered penicillin.
1943 large-scale industrial production of penicillin
19440.T. Avery and others proved that DNA is genetic material through experiments.
1953 J.D. Watson and F.H.C Crick discovered the double helix structure of DNA.
196 1- 1966 Deciphering the Genetic Code
1970, the first class Ⅱ restriction endonuclease was isolated.
Establishment of in vitro recombinant technology of 1972 DNA
Kohler and milstein established hybridoma technology.
1976 DNA sequencing technology was born.
1978 produced genetically engineered insulin for the first time.
1980 The US Supreme Court ruled that genetically engineered products can be patented.
1980 the first biotechnology company was listed on Nasdaq.
The first transgenic animal (mouse) was born.
The livestock vaccine produced by 1982 DNA recombination technology was first marketed in Europe.
The artificial chromosome 1983 was successfully synthesized for the first time.
1985 gene fingerprinting technology first appeared in court as evidence.
1986 The first transgenic crop was approved for field test.
1986 The first DNA recombinant human vaccine (hepatitis B vaccine) was successfully developed.
1988 PCR technology came out.
1989 transgenic insect-resistant cotton passed the field test.
1990 The United States approved the first experiment of somatic gene therapy.
1990 the human genome project was officially launched.
1990 the first transgenic animal (salmon) was allowed to be raised.
1993 bioengineering industrial organization was established.
1994 transgenic fresh-keeping tomatoes are listed in the United States
1997 Britain bred the first cloned sheep "Dolly".
Establishment of 1998 human embryonic stem cell line
In 2000, the working frame of human genome was completed.
200 1 China Rice Gene Map Completed.
The sequencing of human genome was completed in 2003.
3. I don't know
Genetic engineering is also called gene splicing technology or DNA recombination technology. This technology is to transform and recombine biological genes by artificial "shearing" and "splicing" of DNA molecules in vitro, and then introduce them into recipient cells for asexual reproduction, so that the recombinant genes can be expressed in recipient cells and the gene products needed by human beings can be produced. In layman's terms, it is to copy the individual genes of an organism according to people's subjective wishes, transform them, and then put them into the cells of another organism to directionally transform the genetic traits of that organism.
Genetic engineering is designed and constructed at the level of DNA molecule. The diameter of DNA molecule is only 2.0nm (only the thickness of hair1100000), and its length is extremely short. For example, the DNA of Haemophilus influenzae is only 0.83? M, even the relatively large E.coli, its length is only 1.36? M. Cutting and splicing on such a tiny DNA molecule is a very delicate work and requires special tools.
5. Cell engineering refers to a comprehensive science and technology that uses the principles and methods of cell biology and molecular biology to change the genetic material in cells or obtain cell products at the level of cell whole or organelle according to people's wishes through some engineering means. According to different cell types, cell engineering can be divided into plant cell engineering and animal cell engineering.
Cloning is usually artificially induced asexual reproduction or natural asexual reproduction (such as plants). Cloning is a multicellular organism, genetically identical to another organism. Clones can be natural clones, such as asexual reproduction or individuals with identical genes (just like identical twins). But what we usually mean by cloning is an identical copy produced by conscious design.
I don't know!
7. Fermentation engineering refers to the use of some specific functions of microorganisms, the use of modern engineering technology to produce products useful to human beings, or the direct application of microorganisms to industrial production processes. The contents of fermentation engineering include strain selection, culture medium preparation, sterilization, expanded culture and inoculation, fermentation process and product separation and purification.
1) "Fermentation" includes "fermentation strictly defined by microbial physiology" and "industrial fermentation", and the term "fermentation engineering" should be "industrial fermentation".
(2) In industrial production, products are processed or manufactured through industrial fermentation, and the corresponding processing or manufacturing process is called "fermentation process". In order to realize industrial production, it is necessary to solve the engineering problems of industrial production environment, equipment and process control in order to realize these processes (fermentation process), so there is "fermentation engineering"
(3) Fermentation engineering is a discipline to solve the engineering problems of industrial production according to fermentation technology. Fermentation engineering from the engineering point of view, the fermentation industrial process of realizing fermentation technology is divided into three stages: strain, fermentation and refining (including wastewater treatment). These three stages have their own engineering problems, which are generally called upstream, midstream and downstream projects of fermentation engineering respectively.
(4) Microorganism is the soul of fermentation engineering. In recent years, the understanding of the biological characteristics of fermentation engineering has become increasingly clear, and fermentation engineering is approaching science.
(5) The basic principle of fermentation engineering is its biological principle.
(6) Fermentation engineering has three development stages.
Fermentation engineering in the modern sense is an open discipline with strong technology and application, which is formed by the intersection and integration of many disciplines. Fermentation engineering has experienced three development stages: agricultural manual processing, modern fermentation engineering and modern fermentation engineering.
Fermentation engineering originated from family or workshop-style fermentation production (manual processing of agricultural products). Later, chemical engineering was used for reference to realize industrial production (modern fermentation engineering). Finally, we will return to nature, research, design and guide industrial fermentation production (modern fermentation engineering) centered on microbial life activities, and enter the ranks of bioengineering.
The original manual workshop fermentation production relies on the skills and experience handed down by ancestors to produce fermented products, which is heavy in physical labor and limited in production scale, and it is difficult to realize industrial production. Therefore, the predecessors in the field of fermentation first asked for advice from chemistry and chemical engineering, learned from agricultural chemistry and chemical engineering, standardized fermentation production technology, replaced manual handling with pumps and pipelines, and replaced manual operation with machine production, which successfully pushed workshop-style fermentation production to the level of industrial production. The combination of fermentation production with chemistry and chemical engineering contributed to the first leap in fermentation production.
Through decades of industrial fermentation production practice, people gradually realize that industrial fermentation process is a time-varying, nonlinear, multi-variable input and output dynamic biological process. If we deal with the problems of industrial fermentation production (especially large-scale production) according to the mode of chemical engineering, it is often difficult to get the expected results. From the point of view of chemical engineering, fermentor is also a reactor for raw material fermentation, and the microbial cells cultured in fermentor are just a catalyst. According to the orthodox thinking of chemical engineering, it is certainly difficult for microorganisms to exert their unique production potential. Therefore, we trace back to the biological core (microorganism) of workshop-style fermentation production technology, return to nature, and have a new understanding of the attributes of fermentation engineering. The identification of biological characteristics of fermentation engineering makes the development of fermentation engineering have a clear direction, and fermentation engineering has entered the category of bioengineering.
Fermentation engineering refers to the use of engineering technology, using some functions and activities of organisms (mainly microorganisms) to separate enzymes, producing biological products useful to human beings, or directly using microorganisms to control some industrial production processes. Well-known examples are beer, fruit wine and industrial alcohol produced by yeast fermentation, cheese and yogurt produced by lactic acid bacteria fermentation, and large-scale production of penicillin by fungi. With the progress of science and technology, fermentation technology has also developed greatly, and it has entered the stage of modern fermentation engineering, which can manually control and transform microorganisms to make these microorganisms produce products for human beings. As an important part of modern biotechnology, modern fermentation engineering has broad application prospects. For example, genetic engineering is used to purposefully transform the original strain and improve its yield; Using microbial fermentation to produce drugs, such as human insulin, interferon and growth hormone.
It has developed from the simple production of alcoholic beverages, acetic acid and fermented bread to an extremely important branch of bioengineering today, and has become a multidisciplinary project including microbiology, chemical engineering, genetic engineering, cell engineering, mechanical engineering and computer software and hardware engineering. Modern fermentation engineering not only produces alcoholic beverages, acetic acid, bread, but also produces insulin, interferon, growth hormone, antibiotics, vaccines and other medical and health care drugs, produces agricultural means of production such as natural pesticides, bacterial fertilizers and microbial herbicides, and produces amino acids, spices, biopolymers, enzymes, vitamins, single cell proteins and so on in the chemical industry.
Broadly speaking, fermentation engineering consists of three parts: upstream engineering, midstream engineering and downstream engineering. Upstream projects include the selection of excellent seed plants, the determination of optimal fermentation conditions (pH, temperature, dissolved oxygen, nutrients) and the preparation of nutrients. Midstream project mainly refers to the technology of cultivating a large number of cells and producing metabolites in fermentor under the best fermentation conditions. There should be a strict aseptic growth environment here, including the technology of high temperature and high pressure sterilization of fermentation raw materials, fermentation tanks and various connecting pipes before fermentation begins; Air filtration technology of continuously introducing dry sterile air into the fermentation tank during fermentation; Computer control technology for controlling feeding speed according to cell growth demand during fermentation; Seed culture and production culture also have different techniques. In addition, according to different needs, batch fermentation is also classified in fermentation technology: one-time fed-batch fermentation; Fed-batch fermentation: that is, on the basis of one-time fed-batch fermentation, a certain amount of nutrients are added to make cells grow further or obtain more metabolites; Continuous fermentation: continuously add nutrients and take out the fermentation broth. Before any large-scale industrial fermentation, a large number of experiments must be carried out in a laboratory-scale small fermentor to obtain the kinetic model of product formation, and according to this model, the fermentation requirements of the pilot plant are designed, and finally the kinetic model of larger-scale production is designed from the pilot plant data. Due to the complexity of biological reaction, there will be many problems in the process from laboratory to pilot plant, from pilot plant to large-scale production, which is the problem of amplification of fermentation engineering process. Downstream engineering refers to the technology of separating purified products from fermentation broth, including solid-liquid separation technology (centrifugal separation, filtration separation, precipitation separation, etc. ), cell wall-breaking technology (ultrasound, high pressure shearing, osmotic pressure, surfactant, lywallzyme, etc. ), protein purification technology (precipitation, chromatographic separation and ultrafiltration, etc. ), and finally the product packaging and processing technology (vacuum drying and freeze drying, etc.). ).
In addition, in the fermentation industry that produces drugs and food, it is necessary to strictly abide by the cGMPs regulations promulgated by the Federal Food and Drug Administration of the United States, and regularly accept the inspection and supervision of relevant competent departments.