From the fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476 A.D. to the beginning of the Renaissance in the middle of the fifteenth century, the thousand years of European history are customarily called the "Middle Ages. Medieval Europe was characterized by the unity of church and state, the dominance of Christian theology, and the fact that "science was only the obedient handmaiden of the Church, and it was not allowed to go beyond the boundaries set by religion." (Marx and Engels, Selected Works, Vol. 3, p. 390) The fifth to tenth centuries in particular were a dark period in European history. At that time Western Europeans were no longer clear even about the doctrines of the Greek scientists, and the claim that the earth was spherical was classified as a heresy, while Biblical mythology re-emerged as the basis of the cosmic system. The main reason why astronomy was still taught as a compulsory subject in higher education during this period was to teach people to calculate the date of Easter.
Arabic science began to spread from Spain to England, France, and Germany in the tenth century. But it was after the Christians had conquered Toledo in Spain (1085) and Sicily in southern Italy (1091) that Arabic scientific works were translated into Latin in large numbers. The most active period of translation was between 1125 and 1280, and the most famous translator was Gerald of Cremona. He translated more than 80 books in his lifetime, including Ptolemy's Das Astronomia and Chalcali's Toledo Astronomical Tables.
After the scientific works of ancient Greece and Arabia were translated into Latin, the scriptural philosopher Aquinas immediately combined the doctrines of Aristotle, Ptolemy, and others with theology. Aquinas' first argument for the existence of God was that the movement of the celestial spheres required a prime mover, God. However, by this time, due to the accumulation of scientific knowledge, some of the arguments of the scriptural philosophers could no longer be accepted unconditionally. At the same time with Aquinas, the English innovator R. Bacon had a distinctive materialistic tendency, advocating "to understand natural science, medicine, alchemy, and all things in heaven and on earth by experiments", and opposing the scriptural and doctrinal blind beliefs, which played a role in promoting the development of the theory of the universe and science.
At the same time with R. Bacon, the Frenchman Holywood, known by his Latin name Sacrobosco, wrote "Theory of the Celestial Spheres", expounding on spherical astronomy, concise and easy to understand, reprinted many times, with a variety of translations, which was popular until the end of the seventeenth century.
In the middle of the fourteenth century, Vienna established a university, which gradually became a center of astronomy and mathematics, and after Pourbach became professor of astronomy and mathematics at the university in 1450, the academic air was even more intense. On the basis of Ptolemy's "Astronomy", Prbach compiled the book "Handbook of Astronomy" as a supplement to Zachroboschow's "Theory of the Heavenly Spheres"; and at the same time, he wrote "Theory of the Planets", which pointed out in detail that Aristotle and Ptolemy's theories about the planets were different.
Pulbahar's student and collaborator, J. Miller, a Rechomontanus, had accompanied Pulbahar to Italy to study Ptolemy's astronomy from the Greek original. Both of them found that the Alphonsine Astronomical Tables, which were two hundred years old, were quite inaccurate and needed to be revised. Later, Rechomontanus settled in Nuremberg, and with the financial support of Walter, a wealthy merchant who was an astronomy enthusiast, he built an observatory with a repair shop and a printing office, and compiled and printed a nautical almanac every year from 1475 to 1505, which provided the conditions for Columbus' discovery of the New World in 1492.
While Pulpahar and Rechomontanus were very active, two famous astronomers also appeared in Italy: Toscanelli and Nicola of Cusa. They had both studied at the University of Padua and were close classmates and friends of each other. The former studied medicine, encouraged Columbus in his voyages, and later became an excellent astronomical observer, systematically observing six comets (1433, 1449-1450, 1456, 1457 I, 1457 II, 1472) and using the Duomo in Florence as a guidepost to accurately determine the solstices and the difference of years (see Solstices, Differences of Years, and Chapter Movements). The latter, while bishop of the city of Brixen (now called Bressanone) in northern Italy, developed ideas about the motion of the earth and the infinity of the universe. He said that the whole universe was composed of the same four elements; that the celestial bodies were inhabited by beings similar to those on earth; and that whether a man was on earth, or on the sun, or on some other star, the position he occupied as seen through his eyes was always immovable, while everything else was in motion.
In the fifteenth century, the work of men from Pulpahar to Nicholas created the conditions for the birth of modern astronomy, both practically and theoretically, and Copernicus's Theory of the Operation of the Heavenly Bodies was based on the labors of these men.
Yuan literature
The history of the Yuan dynasty is not long, since 1271, Kublai will be the Mongol dynasty to change the name of the country for the Great Yuan (at the time of the Southern Song Dynasty has not yet finalized the demise of) counting on the Yuan died in 1367, only 96 years. From the Mongol dynasty's destruction of the Jin Dynasty and unification of the north to the death of the Yuan, it was 133 years. Compared with the literature of the previous generation, the most outstanding achievement in Yuan literature was in opera, and the later generations often called "Yuan opera" together with "Tang poetry" and "Song lyrics". Poetry, lyrics, prose and other literary styles are in relative decline.
Poetry Yuan poems, the Qing dynasty Gu Suli "Yuan Poetry Selection" *** collection of 340, Xi Shichen supplement "Yuan Poetry Selection Dec Collection" searching thousands of scattered anonymous. In addition, Gu's unseen collection still has more than 50. The poems scattered in the Yongle Daxian are still many. However, the poems of the Yuan people mentioned here include the Mongolian period.
After the unification of northern China by the Mongol dynasty, the poets who were still active in the poetry world were still the poets of the Jin Dynasty, and Yuan Haowen wrote a lot of good poems in this period, in addition to Ma Ge, Zhang Yu, Chen Geng, Chen Geng, Fang □, Duan Kegi, Duan Chengji, and Cao Zhiqian, etc. The poems were published in a series of books called "River Fen," which was compiled by Fang Qi. The works of these writers are included in the "Collection of Poems by the Old Men of Hefen" compiled by Fang Qi. Most of their poems after entering the Yuan Dynasty were longing for the Jin Dynasty and expressed their ambition to be poor and not to be an official of the new dynasty. Li Junmin, who was almost the same time as Yuan Haowen, also continued his poetry after entering the Yuan.
Mongolian aristocrats emphasized the military over the literati, respecting military talents and not valuing or even despising the scribes. It was not until Kublai the Great that he changed his policy and absorbed some scholars to join his regime. However, he still thought that "the Han people are only responsible for the lessons and poems", which was not useful. Some of the scholars who joined the new regime, such as Liu Bingzhong, Hao Jing, Xu Heng, Liu Yin, Yang Guo, etc., wrote some poems, but there was nothing new in the poetry world. Most of the works of those who joined the new regime showed the contradictory feelings of wanting to be an official and wanting to go back to their hometowns. Xu Heng said in his poem "Disciplining the Son", "I live in field drains and think about the king." And in the poem "Occasional Achievement", he added: "The old man is a mountain family, but he is also sweet." There are probably two reasons for this kind of thinking: one is that in the situation of emphasizing the military over the literary, although the use of not being relied upon, there is a sense of condescension. One is in the national conflict, afraid of encountering unexpected difficulties. Xu Heng's "Occasional" said: "The far-reaching feelings have not been realized before birth, and the common things are mostly learned after being trapped." Yelu Chusai's poem "Sending off with Bangrui" says: "A scholar should never forget to report his grievances, and a human being should believe in the grace of being harmed. Now that I have leaped into the amazing waves, I cherish the wind and waves passing through Yumen." They were fearful in their career. These people were not like those of the Hefen School of Poetry who were willing to remain anonymous and do poetry instead of becoming officials. Therefore, the feeling of being unrecognized for their talents and the feeling of being a recluse are the keynote of their poems.
In the latter part of the Mongol period, Kublai consolidated his power in the north and prepared to annihilate the Southern Song Dynasty, which caused a complex reflection in the minds of the Han Chinese in the north. Hao Jing and Xu Shilong, who were not in favor of the annexation of the Southern Song Dynasty, were sent to the south as peace envoys and were imprisoned by Jia Sidao in Zhenzhou for 16 years. Hao Jing wrote "Night Rain in Su Zhou": "When will Xing Mo ever get rid of Ping Kang, the two countries have long been ordered to be like one king", hoping that Song and Yuan would live in peace with each other. When Kublai sent troops to attack the Song Dynasty, Liu Yin composed "The Fugue of Crossing the River" to express his emotion, which showed his attachment to the Song Dynasty. Wang Ching's "Crying for Prime Minister Wen" and Wang Yun's "Temple of Yu" are both poignant and full of lamentation.
In the early period of Kublai's unification of the North and South, the poems of Han writers reflected, to varying degrees, the sorrow for the collapse of the Han regime and the grief for the disasters brought by the war to the people. For example, Fang Hui's "Grass on the Path", Yin Tinggao's "Passing through the Homeland", Wu Cheng's "Wyatt Huang's Residence in Mount Huagai to Avoid Chaos", Qiu Yuan's "Sending to Dong Wuyi", "Elegy to the Right Prime Minister of the Lu Dynasty, Xiu Fu", and Monique Liu's "Sense of the Old Line", and so on. However, after the Dade, some people who lived in seclusion began to be active. Ming Wu Ne said: "Yuan Shizu early in the south of the Yangtze River, the freaks floating between the village, mostly poetry and wine to play the world. After Yuan Zhen and Da De, they came out a little." Fang Hui's "Sending Wang Sheng Yu to Dai Xi" said, "The universe is happy to be unified, and it has been thirty years now. All the generals and ministers in Jiangnan have gone north to raise their whips. The scholar is also looking for an official, and he tends to Yoyan with his grain." It was at this time that Zhao Mengfu and Yuan Jue accepted the offer. Yuan Jue was a disciple of Dai Biao Yuan. At this time, Zhao Mengfu (赵孟頫\\\\以宋朝王孙入仕), style and elegance, the best for a while, Yuan Jue and Zhao Mengfu and Zhao Mengfu mutual harmony, "a change in poetry". They, the southerners, together with Yao Su, Yuan Mingshan, and Mazu Chang from the north, wrote ancient poems imitating the Han and Wei Dynasties, and metrical poems learning from the Sheng Tang Dynasty, in a clear and robust style, which began to form a unified poetic style and tone between the north and the south. The content also changed somewhat, from non-cooperation to cooperation with the new regime. Song Wu's "Song of the Ancient Inkstone": "The broken sky has no one to mend the broken pieces, and the silk of a cave leaks the spring rain. Empty hiding the old stone grinding the present and the past, when will the mending of the sky speak to the heavens." Yuan Shiyuan's "The Cold River Fishing Picture": "I can laugh at the several anglers in the jiangsu, who call each other in the morning and call each other in the evening. Now the wind and snow cover their heads, and when they look back at the smoke and waves, there is nothing." They left the cold river and went to the court to serve the country. The social and political situation of the Yuan Dynasty was basically peaceful and stable, and poetry creation also entered into the sound of the heyday. The four great poets of the Yuan Dynasty, Yu Ji, Yang Zai, Fan □, and Jie □, who succeeded Yao Sui and Yuan Jue, were the representative figures of this period. Their works, generally speaking, were not rich or even poor in content, but all of them mastered writing skills, and Yu Ji was especially famous. In addition to Yu, Yang, Fan and Jie, Ma Zu Chang and Sadu □ were also famous for their poems. They were all poets of ethnic minorities.
The poets who came a little later than Yu Jie and Saduqi, such as Zhu Derun, □ Xian, Xu Youren, Xie Yingfang, Yuan Jie, and so on, had their works changed again. The subject of exposing the darkness of social reality more, Zhu Derun has a "deep water around" wrote that the people's lives at that time, and even "do not want to be a farmer would like to be a thief". 14th century in the middle of the Yuan Shun emperor to the right year, shandong and Hebei and other parts of the outbreak of a number of small-scale peasant revolts. Then Liu Futong, Xu Shouhui, Guo Zixing and Zhu Yuanzhang revolted in the Jianghuai area. The Red Scarf Army was formed. Fang Guozhen, Zhang Shicheng also led the salt people revolt, the momentum, the Yuan Dynasty ruling group was busy, difficult to deal with, the situation is chaotic. This is a major political and social transition in history. In the face of this situation, some writers and poets made different reflections in their works due to different social status and political attitudes. Generally speaking, except for those that appeared in the form of ballads, such as the Songjiang Folk Ballad, the writings of some other literati hardly described correctly this peasant war of enormous scale. Zhang Yu "wuxu (to Zheng 18 years) title": "twilight rain and morning clouds flipping hands, falling flowers and flotsam short long pavilion. How uncooked sorghum rice, said the hero's dream has awakened." It was written by Zhang Shicheng. Cheng Tingxu's "Second Rhyme for Cao Xinmin's Feeling for the Times and Sadness" said, "Guests came to talk about the events in Huainan, and the white bones were like mountains where grass did not grow. I have turned over the clouds and rain a few times, and I have climbed up to the infinite feelings of the past and present." It also accused Zhang Shicheng. Zhou Sholi, a staff member of Chen Youliang, wrote a song called "Crying for Positioning" to express his dissatisfaction with Zhu Yuanzhang when his friend Positioning was killed in a fire fight between Chen Youliang and Zhu Yuanzhang. In this peasant uprising, there were internal conflicts and some opportunistic defectors. Things were very complicated, and there was a general tendency in the works of many poets at this time, that is, most of them sympathized with the poor peasants, but they were afraid of the peasants rising up to rebel. Zhang Zhu's "□nong sighs" and "human geese chanting compassion for the hungry also two chapters", and Wang Guan's "wounded pavilion households", "Jiangnan women" and "sad and bitter line" all reflect the people's miserable situation under the plunder of taxes. However, Zhang Zhu's "Sending Zhou Boqi to the Councillor of Zhejiang Province" and "Going out of the Army", and Wang Guan's "Row of Powerful Grass" and "Row of Painful Weeping" all reveal his fear and hatred of the peasant revolt. Wang Coronation's poems are simple and simple, and his style is sometimes similar to Li He's. The Yuan poets imitated Li He's poems. Yuan poets imitated Li He, generally believed to be the beginning of the Sadu □, but Song Wu learned the most like. Jiangsu and Zhejiang formed a trend, Linhai Xiang Jiong, Dongyang Li Xu, Li Yu, Yongdong Wen Qi, Chun'an He Jingfu, are labeled Li He, poems more strange lines. Yang Weizhen, the most famous poet at that time, loved to write music poems. He himself wanted to imitate the ancient music of the Han and Wei Dynasties, but he still wrote in the style of Li He, so it was said that Yang Weizhen "picked up the elegant style of Jinbang (Li He), and succeeded the rhyme of Yuyu (Li Shangyin)."
Toward the end of the Yuan Dynasty, Zhang Shicheng established a regime in the south, which was actually a feudalistic one. Under Zhang Shicheng's regime, a new situation emerged among the scholars. Yang Weizhen had an uneasy relationship with this regime. His friends and students, Chen Ji and Zhang Xian, were on the staff of Zhang Shicheng's brothers. Gu Ying, a native of Kunshan, dispersed his family's wealth and became a monk. Jiangyin's Xu Shuxue learned from Han Kang and sold medicine to support himself. Wuxi Ni Zan abandoned the fields and huts, east and west. They regarded the field property as a burden, would rather wander the countryside, not home to live the life of a rich man. The end of the Yuan poets and the beginning of the Yuan poets in the same national conflict to make a living, social upheaval makes some poets in a dilemma. This is reflected in their works to varying degrees.
The words of the Yuan Dynasty are quite inferior to those of the Song Dynasty. Yuan words can be divided into about two periods. In the first period, the lyricists roughly included three parts: those who entered the Yuan from Jin, those who entered the Yuan from the Southern Song Dynasty, and the northern lyricists who were under the rule of the Mongol dynasty. In this period, the more moving works were those that expressed the thoughts of the homeland. In the second period, most of the lyricists were born after Kublai's change of government. Famous lyricists of this period include Zhang Zhu, Saduqi and Yu Ji. Yu Ji's [Wind into the Pines] and Saduqi's [Man Jiang Hong] "Ancient Reminiscences of Jinling" were very popular. Zhang Zhu's words are especially characterized by their delicacy.
Miscellaneous dramas and loose songs in the Yuan dynasty literature, a new body of plant is opera. Opera is generally divided into miscellaneous plays and loose songs. The Yuan dynasty opera is generally divided into miscellaneous operas and loose compositions. Since the loose songs grew up on the basis of the common ballads and slang songs of the Jin Dynasty in the north, most of them are northern songs. There are more than 200 writers who have left their names. Many writers of miscellaneous dramas also had achievements in the creation of loose songs. In the early period, there were Guan Hanqing, Ma Zhiyuan, Bai Pu, Lu Zhi, Guan Yunshi and so on, with simple style and colorful language. In the later period, there are Qiao Ji, Zhang Kejiu, Su Jingchen, Zhang Yanghao and Liu Shizhong, the text is slightly exposed talent and rhetoric. Because of the loose song to be used as a banquet kabuki lyrics, more colorful songs. However, there are also a lot of scenery, lyricism and nostalgia for the past, sigh the world's small orders; as well as a small number of satirizing the world, pointing out the ills of the times, deride the heroes of the chaotic world of the set, such as Ma Zhiyuan "Borrowing Horses", Liu Shizhong "on the high supervisors", Su Jingchen "Gaozu return home" and so on; all have the characteristics of the times and high artistic achievement.
Yuan miscellaneous dramas, including the works of anonymous writers at the time of the Yuan and Ming dynasties, have been recorded as 737 kinds, and 218 kinds are still preserved today. Miscellaneous plays were initially popular in the area of Shanxi and Hebei, and the mural paintings and theaters of the Jin and Yuan dynasties are still preserved in the area of Shanxi today. At the beginning of the Yuan Dynasty, it was developed to other regions, and then flowed into Hangzhou and other places after the Yuan Dynasty destroyed the Southern Song Dynasty. This kind of drama is established on the basis of Song Miscellaneous Opera, Jin Yuan Ben and Zhu Gong Tunes and other previous generations of drama and music. The script of the Kobai part of the inheritance of the system of the House, the combination of songs and phrases is mainly inspired by the Gongtong, basically a song and dance drama.
In addition to the novelty of the artistic form, the miscellaneous dramas were also characterized by the characteristics of the era in terms of content. First of all, it widely reflected the lives of people from all walks of life in the Yuan Dynasty, and the lives and feelings of the middle and lower classes of people occupied a more important position. Among them, the images of merchants and prostitutes are more striking. Merchants and prostitutes were mostly gathered in the cities, prostitutes were the abnormal products of the cities, and the cities were the places where merchants traded. Mongolian dynasty once across Europe and Asia, the continent of east-west transportation unimpeded. Western merchants to the east, business operations were stimulated, the pursuit of commercial profits, became an important feature of city life at that time. Marco Polo, an Italian, said in his "Chronicle of a Journey" that the transportation of goods in the metropolis at that time was endless. And of course it became a place where traders gathered. Liu Congshan in Wuhan Chen's Lao Sheng'er was a merchant, and Zhou She in Guan Hanqing's Saving the Wind and Dust was a merchant who tricked a prostitute, Song Yinzhang, into marrying him, and was himself tricked by another prostitute, Zhao Pan'er. The character of Zhao Pan'er, compared with the prostitutes in the Tang legends and Song books, shows a unique style. In addition, most of the women depicted in Yuan miscellaneous dramas are rich in the spirit of struggle, and as long as the flame of love burns in their hearts, they will not hide it. Liu Mei'er in The Book of Money and Li Yuying in The Quilt of the Mandarin Ducks are such women. The character of Tan Ji'er in Wang Jiang Ting, who opposes rape, is also distinctive. In addition, the story of the Qing official's public case in Yuan dramas is also noteworthy. From the number of sections of official miscellaneous dramas of the Song Dynasty in "Old Story of Wulin" and "Dropout Records", the titles of the Jin Dynasty Yuan dynasty are not found in Bao Gong's plays, but many Bao Gong's plays appeared in Yuan miscellaneous dramas. In the Yuan Dynasty, the official government was dark, and the powerful and influential families could kill people without paying for their lives. Only Dade seven years (1303) in December, the seven provinces by making the prefects to strike the dirty officials have 18,473 people, 45,865 ingots of stolen money, the trial of 5,176 cases of injustice. There are too many cases of injustice, and many cases of injustice are not resolved. The emergence of public drama was closely related to this social background, and the image of Bao Gong became the embodiment of the people's desire for a clean official.
There are also a lot of Yuan dynasty miscellaneous dramas with historical stories as the theme of the play and some of the Water Margin story theater. These two themes in the Song dynasty miscellaneous plays and Jinrenyuan book are rare, but in the Song and Yuan books appear in large numbers. Li Kui, Wu Song and other 4 plays written by Li Er in red characters were not passed down. Gao Wenxiu compiled 9 kinds of miscellaneous dramas, 1 kind exists. Kang Jinzhi compiled 2 kinds of plays, and 1 kind has been handed down. Almost all of their plays were about Li Kui's fight against injustice, and "Li Kui's Bauhinia" was well known. Famous works on historical themes include Bai Pu's Wutong Rain, Ma Zhiyuan's Autumn in the Han Palace, and Ji Junxiang's Orphan of Zhao, etc. There are also many works on the Three Kingdoms. There are also many works written about the Three Kingdoms. Whether historical or water-margin themes, all of them have realistic meanings, and the authors express their pent-up anger and lessons of history through historical stories.
Yuan miscellaneous dramas are also worthy of attention. In Ma Zhiyuan's "Chen □ high lying", Chen □ sings: "Chicken and insect gains and losses do not need to be counted, Peng □ free and ready to know. See the ants and bees, the dragons and tigers, the swallows and hunters, the rabbits and crows. Life is like a gathering of ants in a contested cave, and time is like a white horse. The world seems to be like a dancing chicken, and it is not enough to get a rank and a half position, it is not enough to count, it is not enough to question!" The performance of negative unwillingness to serve as an official. But on the other hand, he said, "If you don't want to be a government official and want to relieve the people's suffering, then you should not be a government official." This kind of reluctance to serve as an official and want to relieve the people's suffering of the contradictory mood, is precisely the Han scholar in the early period of the unification of the north and south of the Yuan dynasty *** with the bitterness.
Yuan miscellaneous plays, there are many fairy Taoist drama, which, to some extent, with the prevalence of Taoism. Some of these plays are purely religious propaganda, but there are also some reflecting the same idea with the hidden theme of the miscellaneous plays **** to escape from reality and can not forget the reality. The authors of miscellaneous dramas in the early Yuan Dynasty were Bai Park, Shi Jingxian, Shi Zizhang, Li Wenwei, Guan Hanqing, Wang Shifu, Ma Zhiyuan, Yang Xianzhi, Li Shizhong, Zhang Guobin, the red character Li Er, Kang Jinzhi, Gao Wenxiu, Ji Junxiang, Shang Zhongxian, Li Zhifu and so on. A time of talent, works show a prosperous situation. Among them, Guan Hanqing's works are the most, the greatest achievements. His plays such as Dou'e Grievance, Save the Wind and Dust, Wangjiang Pavilion, Moon Pavilion, Tune the Wind and Moon, and Single Dagger Society are all masterpieces. Guan Hanqing, along with Bai Pu, Ma Zhiyuan and Zheng Guangzu, were known as the "Four Great Masters of Yuan Opera". Wang Shifu, who was not one of the four great masters, was also highly accomplished. His The Story of the Western Chamber was praised by Jia Zhongming in the late Yuan and early Ming dynasties as "the best in the world". This play had a great influence at that time as well as in later generations, and was the most highly accomplished. Many of the writers of miscellaneous dramas after the Dade were people who had failed to win the conscription, failed in the examination, and were "of lowly rank and position". Their works show the feeling of being unrecognized. Zheng Guangzu, Qiao Ji, and Gong Tianting all belonged to this category of writers. Zheng Guangzu's "Wang Chuan's Ascent to the Tower" expresses the grievances of a person who "learned to make up for his genius" but "could not find a ladder to the sky" and the resentment of not being able to realize his talent. Qiao Ji has been in exile for 40 years, and Gong Tian Ting has been framed but not used. In addition to writing plays, Qiao Ji also wrote excellent prose songs. He said: "Looked all over the Luoyang flowers like a brocade, glory, but also in Nim, withered, but also in Nim." It shows that his life is scribbling and his ambition is worn out.
Early in the 14th century, Yuan Renzong Yanxu two years (1315), resumed the examination system, which had been suspended for 78 years, but made a new provision for the content of the examination. That is, since the Sui and Tang dynasties, "the law and fugue province questions poetry small meaning are not used, and specialize in the establishment of moral and Confucianism". This is to say that the late Yuan dynasty social contradictions deepened, the rulers need to Cheng Zhu theory of feudalism to maintain their rule. They emphasized, "The study of the scriptures is the way to cultivate oneself and rule others." The implementation of this policy by the Yuan government had a certain impact on the creation of Yuan miscellaneous dramas. In the later period of the miscellaneous operas scripts to promote feudal morality is quite strong, and some of them simply become the gospel of feudalism. Miscellaneous plays also tend to decline.
South opera Yuan dynasty theater in addition to miscellaneous plays, in the south there is still the South Qu opera, or South opera. South opera was originally a type of theater in the area of Wenzhou, Zhejiang Province, also known as Yongjia miscellaneous plays. During the Xianchun period of Song Du Zong, Wang Huan was popular in Hangzhou for a while. To the Yuan Dynasty South Opera is still constantly performed. Actors such as Longlou Jing, Edward Dan show and others, specializing in southern opera. According to records at that time there were more than 160 kinds of scripts, about 16 kinds exist today. Thorn Hairpin", "Bay Moon Pavilion" ("Bay Moon Pavilion") and "White Rabbit", "Kill the Dog" is known as the four major plays of the Southern Opera. By the time of Emperor Shun of Yuan Dynasty, Gao Ming wrote "Pipa Story", which marked the peak of the development of Southern Opera, and also influenced the prosperity of the legendary operas in the Ming Dynasty.
The early lyrics of the southern opera were a mixture of Song lyrics and slang songs, with a loose structure, more gags, less prominent characters, and rough art. Later, the northern opera was introduced to Hangzhou, and after mutual exchanges, it absorbed the advantages of the northern opera and adopted a joint approach to the lyrics, reducing the number of gags and making it easier to focus on the characterization of the characters. Later, there were many "out" combinations, which was a major development in the history of Chinese opera.
Prose and novels Yuan dynasty prose and novels, basically only inherited the achievements of the Song Dynasty, few innovations; plus prose and Cheng Zhu theory entangled together, poor thinking, the vast majority of the application of the text, the lack of emotion. Text imitation of the Tang Dynasty Han, Liu, Song Dynasty Ou, Su, the achievement is not high. The world known as the Yuan dynasty ancient text of Yao Su and Yu set, their prose is also mostly for the monument and should be made, although the text is elegant, but no characteristics.
Novels by the Ming Dynasty people modified, the specific date of writing is difficult to judge, can be pointed out for the Yuan people, only Lu Xian's "good son Zhao Zheng" ("Song four Gong haunted the forbidden soul Zhang") a piece of the rest is not a remnant of the work that is presumed to be undetermined. But the historical story, such as "Three Kingdoms Story" and several other kinds, basically can be concluded that the Yuan Dynasty works, the narrative historical facts, more than a mixture of true and false, false and real parallel, is the storyteller spare words.
Taking an overview of the literature of the Yuan Dynasty, although the traditional poems also produced some excellent or better works, but as a whole, the achievement is not high. And the opera appeared great writers and many excellent or better works, in the history of literature far-reaching influence.