The baker Fu Ruoran cheated the scales, which was a felony in the Middle Ages. In order to protect himself, the baker would rather give his guests a little more bread than he actually bought.
cereal
Grain is the most important staple food for Europeans, and most of it will be made into bread. Some estimates show that at that time, Europeans would eat 1 to 1.5 kg of bread every day, but grains were sometimes cooked into gruel, milk porridge (in Spanish and English) and noodles, among which rye, barley, buckwheat, millet and oats were the most popular. At that time, rice was grown in northern Italy, but the price of rice was still high in the Middle Ages. In times of famine, they will use millet, dried pods, acorns and ferns instead of grains.
Of all things, people in the Middle Ages thought that wheat was the first, with the highest nutrition and the most expensive price. The bread eaten by nobles is made of refined flour, while the inferior people can only eat some rough, dry and black bread covered with bran. No matter how poor they are, they often mix bread with wine, soup and sauce. This kind of wet bread is called Sop in English and Spanish.
At that time, bread was already a necessary food for every household, and this calendar was also painted with patterns for making bread. The practice of milk porridge is to crush the grain, boil it, add milk, eggs or broth to cook, and also add almonds, raisins, sugar, orange water and so on. This practice is still quite popular in Europe today. [13] This kind of milk porridge was also for patients to drink at that time.
Toast is another popular cereal product. The bottom skin of early toast is inedible. It was not until the14th century that the modern toast style appeared, which was often mixed with meat, eggs, vegetables and even fruits. Some fried dough such as doughnuts and fried dough sticks are also common. In the late Middle Ages, biscuits also began to appear.
Bread plays an important role in society, and the surrounding industries also have attached regulations. Among them, the guild in the Middle Ages was originally composed of bakers, and there were a series of decrees in various places to stabilize the price of bread. 1266, Britain formulated the Assize of bread and ale, which stipulated how much bread you must buy per penny, its weight and the relationship between wheat and bread [14]. The baker's profit is also guaranteed. At that time, in order to raise the upper limit of value, the British Bread Association lobbied and successfully included the expenses of lamp oil, wax, wife, house and dog in the cost of bread. It was not until the19th century that such laws were abolished in London.
If someone cheats on bread, it will be more serious at that time. If a baker cheats on the scales or uses inferior materials to make high-quality bread, he will be severely punished. In order to protect themselves, whenever someone buys a dozen 12 cakes, he would rather give a dozen 13 cakes, which is the so-called "baker's dozen".
The purpose of bread is not just to eat. Because they share a knife when eating, they often use bread as a rag to wipe the knife before handing it to another person, and sometimes they even use bread as a heat insulation cloth. It is also common to use old bread as a plate. The alternative uses of these breads still appear on European dining tables today.
seafood
During fasting, people in the Middle Ages used seafood instead of red meat. During the medieval fast, every household was not allowed to eat red meat, so seafood became the most common substitute. In coastal areas, seafood is a daily necessity. However, due to the high freight rate, fish is also quite expensive in inland areas such as Central Europe.
Herring and cod are the most important catches, which are common in the Atlantic Ocean and Baltic Sea. Herring once played an important role in the Nordic economy and was also an extremely important commodity in the Hanseatic League, a guild in northern Germany. Some pickled herring were even shipped from the North Sea to Constantinople for sale. In addition to fresh cooking, these fish are preserved, air-dried and sometimes smoked. Other common fish are barracuda, carp, perch, lamprey and salmon. [17] At that time, fish generally referred to all marine life, including whales, dolphins and beavers, and in some places, white-fronted geese were also included.
Many software foods are also quite common. Among them, oysters, mussels and scallops are common foods for residents along the river or along the coast, while crayfish is a favorite food in fasting festivals.
Edible meat
Pigs were easy to raise and were the most common meat at that time. Their ears, tongues, tails, mouths and uterus were all eaten. Nowadays, Europeans are more resistant to the internal organs of animals, but in the Middle Ages, people ate almost every part of animals. Ears, tongue, tail, mouth and even uterus will enter the armpit; Intestines, bladders and stomachs will be used to make casings, or artificial giant eggs will be made on Easter.
Among all kinds of meat, pork is the most popular, because the feed is suitable and raising pigs doesn't need much care. At that time, domestic pigs would walk around outdoors. Even on the roads of towns, there are often traces of domestic pigs. They eat food scraps, and suckling pigs are very popular food.
Mutton is another common meat, especially in towns where wool weaving is developed. But cows can only provide milk, and raising cows only needs pasture and a lot of food. At that time, only some old or barren cows were slaughtered for food. In addition to these common meats of modern people, hedgehogs and porcupines were occasionally mentioned in the recipes of the late Middle Ages. The English names of these two animals both mean "pig", which reflects people's views on them at that time.
In terms of birds, people in the Middle Ages ate almost all the birds caught by hunting, including swans, peacocks, quails, mountain cocks, storks, red-crowned cranes and larks. Among them, swans and peacocks will be domesticated for the upper class to eat. Birds don't necessarily eat for meat, sometimes just to watch them float as side dishes. Goose and duck were also raised by people at that time, but chicken was the most eaten of all poultry, and its function was like pork in livestock.
Like many ancient countries, meat is far more expensive than plants. Some studies believe that meat is about 4 times more expensive than bread, and fish can be 16 times more expensive. It was not until the Black Death broke out on a large scale in Europe in the 0/4th century A.D./KLOC that it was estimated that about 25 million Europeans died, leaving a lot of agricultural land abandoned, and more feed could be planted to raise livestock. Rising wages have also pushed up purchasing power. As a result, meat, eggs and milk began to become popular among the people, and both the rich and the poor could enjoy them.
Vegetables and fruits
/kloc-European cabbage was planted in the middle ages in the 0 th and 5 th centuries, and vegetables were regarded as low-quality food. Although many people live on them, and even they are indispensable in human life, few dishes made of pure vegetables are recorded in recipes, and most of them are only used as side dishes. The exception is vegetable and meat soup (French: thick soup), which originated in northern France. This soup is made of vegetables and meat, and its texture is quite thick, but it was not a main course at that time.
Common vegetables are cabbage, beet, onion, garlic and radish. Take radish as a column, one is red and purple, and the other is inferior yellow-green variety. As for the orange radish that people often eat today, it didn't appear until17th century. Many people also eat beans to absorb protein, and German sauerkraut is also quite popular. At that time, farmers could eat three or four times a day.
Fruit is another widely used food. Medieval people inherited the body fluid theory of ancient Rome and ancient Greece, and thought that fruits were wet and not suitable for raw eating, but raw eating, air drying and pickling were equally common. Because sugar and honey are expensive, raw fruit will also be used as seasoning to decorate meat dishes. Lemon, grapefruit, bitter orange, pomegranate and grape are mostly used in southern Europe, while apples, pears, prunes and strawberries are mostly used in northern Europe. Dates and figs are very popular all over Europe, but in northern Europe, the price will be higher because of the freight.
However, many vegetables common in European dishes today did not exist in the Middle Ages. Among them, potatoes, red beans, cocoa, herbs, tomatoes, peppers and corn were all introduced to Europe from America after the discovery of the new continent in the15th century, and after a long time and controversy, they gradually merged into European cuisine.
perfume
The French version of Marco Polo's Travels once added an illustration to describe the harvesting of black pepper. European native spices include sage, mustard, parsley, parsley, mint, dill and fennel. These primary spices always have no full fragrance, and most of them are close to pigments.
In the era of great navigation, imported spices have always been luxury materials, and black pepper, saffron, cinnamon, cinnamon, cumin, nutmeg, ginger and clove have always maintained high prices. It is estimated that during this period, Western Europe imported as many as 1 0,000 tons of black pepper and 1 0,000 tons of different spices every year, the value of which was enough to buy10.5 million people's daily grain, of which black pepper and saffron were the most expensive.
At that time, black pepper was replaced by a spice called African cardamom, which was especially common in northern France. In addition, long pepper, nutmeg kernel, sweet rosin, galangal and litsea cubeba are often added. At that time, because sugar was also regarded as one of the spices, and the price was higher.
Drinks
Even the monk stole the taste of wine. Medieval people thought that alcohol was more nutritious than clean water and also helpful for digestion. Moreover, alcohol is difficult to rot, and there was not necessarily clean drinking water in ancient Europe, which made alcohol very popular at that time. Among them, the northern Mediterranean and most places rich in grapes, such as France, regard wine as an essential drink in daily life. In northern Europe, light beer and beer are more common.
At that time, honey wine and yogurt (called Kumis) made from camel milk or mare's milk were used in Europe, but drinking habits were different in different places. Some places regard them as potions, which were prescribed by ancient doctors [22]. However, Slavs regard honey wine as a fine product, and when signing some important treaties, they will also give honey wine to each other to show their friendship. In Poland and other places, honey wine is as precious as imported spices and Portuguese wine. [23]
grape
/kloc-the winemaking method in the 0/4th century is very similar to that in modern times. Wine was widely accepted in the Middle Ages. It was not only an advanced beverage, but also regarded as having nutritional value. Galen, a famous ancient Greek doctor, believed that wine is hot and dry in nature, but after drinking, its nature will become mild, and concluded that wine is different from wet and cold beer and water, which is more beneficial to the stomach, helps to replenish blood and improve mood.
At that time, people thought that the quality of wine depended not only on grape varieties and brewing years, but also on the number of times grapes were squeezed. The so-called squeezing means that the juice in the peel is put into the brewing barrel, and the pressure makes the peel and juice lose sugar and release the tannic acid in the fruit.
The wine squeezed out for the first time is top grade, which is for the upper class to enjoy; The quality of the wine squeezed out for the second time and the third time is greatly reduced, which will be left for farmers and workers to drink. The poorest people in society, or the most devout clergy, even use diluted black vinegar instead of alcohol.
Excellent red wine needs years of fermentation and more expensive equipment. Many medieval documents widely teach people how to avoid seasonal wine deterioration. Among them, Le Viandier, a cookbook in the14th century, teaches people that wine barrels should always be put away, or dry white grape seeds and distiller's grains ash should be mixed and poured into the wine barrels. In modern medicine, this method is like a natural bactericide, which can slow down the alcohol fermentation process.
Medieval people also believed that warm wine was the most beneficial to health. These hot wines are often drunk with spices, and there are related words to describe this kind of wine in almost all parts of Europe, including Mulled Wine in English, Glühwein in German, vin chaud in French, Grzane Wino in Polish, глинтвекн (Glint). Gg, its making method is similar, and some European countries still use it as a cold drink today.
In addition, ginger, cardamom, clove or sugar can also be added to the wine to become a spice wine. In the14th century, these spice packages were sold in spice shops.
beer
The picture shows the corner of16th century brewery. This brewery was quite common in the Middle Ages, and various spices and even slightly poisonous plants were added to the wine to increase the drunkenness. Although most parts of Europe drink wine, there is no grape production in northern Europe, and even nobles drink beer and ale, which is the most common in Britain, the Netherlands, Germany, Poland and northern Europe today. Local people drink beer almost every day, regardless of class, but influenced by Arab and Mediterranean medicine, this kind of wine is often considered harmful to health.
Compared with wine produced in the south, beer is a secondary substitute for alcohol, which is followed by a series of negative comments. In 1256, Italian doctor Adoban Rodiano described beer as follows: "No matter whether it is brewed with oats, barley or wheat, these wines are harmful to the brain and stomach, which makes people have bad breath, tooth decay and make the stomach full of bad smell ..." But he also pointed out that beer has diuretic effect, making people's skin look whiter and smoother. At that time, people also thought that drinking beer would lead to a longer hangover.
Although there are many negative comments on beer, northern France and central Italy also have the habit of drinking beer. It is estimated that Norman invasion brought local beer back to Europe, and the intermarriage between Britain and France also made beer popular in France. /kloc-The French cookbook Le Menagier de Paris in the 4th century once mentioned a wine called godale, which is probably the English word Good ale.
In the early Middle Ages, monasteries and some families brewed beer, but in the middle ages, some medieval communes began to replace the development of private brewing industry. Each store often employs 8 to 10 people to assist in brewing. In order to cope with the competition, they will buy new equipment, invent different secret recipes, add special seasonings to make the taste of wine more outstanding, and sell beer under their own brands. In the14th century, these brewing industries were introduced to Holland, Flanders and brabant, and then to Britain in the15th century.
Today, in Britain and the Netherlands, everyone can drink 275 to 300 liters of beer a year, almost every meal, including beer with less alcohol content in the morning and beer with higher alcohol concentration at night. [25]
distil
Although ancient Greece and Rome also knew this method, it was not until the Arabs invented the glass water-cooled distiller in the 12 century that Europe began to make drinks in this way on a large scale. Medieval scholars believed that distillation could extract the essence of liquid, and all distilled liquids were called "aqua vitae" (water of life).
Early distillates can be used as medicines or seasonings. For example, distilled glucose syrup mixed with sugar and spices will be used to treat different diseases; Rose perfume can be used as perfume, seasoning or elegant hand washing water. Distilled liquor is a highly respected medicine in medieval medicine. 1309, Lu Hua, a Spanish alchemist, said that drinking regularly can prolong life, refresh the spirit and keep young forever.
Starting from the13rd century, a kind of distilled liquor called Hausbrand (German: Homebrewed) became popular and became the embryonic form of brandy in the future, but the alcohol concentration of distilled liquor was quite high. By the15th century, local governments began to regulate their sales and production. 1496 it is forbidden to sell strong brandy on holidays and sundays in Nuremberg, Germany.
milk
In the middle ages, there was no disinfection technology to treat milk, so most people could only stay away. Before the19th century, the disinfection technology of fresh milk had not been invented, and the milk directly squeezed out was often contaminated by bacteria. In hot summer, milk may rot in a few hours. Due to various restrictions, although the nutritional value of milk was known in the Middle Ages, adults only drank it when they were sick or too poor. This drink is mostly reserved for children and the elderly, among which cheese or whey is more common. [27]
At that time, people in China thought that eating casein was a characteristic of barbarians, while the rich in Europe also stayed away from milk. In some parts of Europe, there is a legend that milk mixed with oysters, spinach, tomatoes or cucumbers will make it highly toxic. This may be due to milk deterioration or milk protein allergy, but it also reflects people's attitude towards milk.
Until the end of the Middle Ages, western navigators went out to sea and began to bring cattle aboard in order to solve the nutritional problem. 1493, when Columbus explored America for the second time, he began to carry cows with him. When Protestants immigrated to the United States on a large scale, Britain even stipulated that every five passengers must have a cow.