With the progress of mankind and the development of science and culture, human anatomy, due to the different objects it serves, has developed differences in research methods, emphasis and purpose, thus gradually forming a number of distinctive divisions: for example, according to the various systems that make up the human body, the study and description of the morphology and structure of organs of the various systems and the systematic anatomy; the local anatomy that studies and discusses the morphology, location and adjacency of structures within the various body parts; the artistic anatomy that adapts to the requirements of painting and sculpture and other specialties; and the local anatomy that studies and discusses the morphology, location and adjacency of structures within the various body parts. According to the needs of the human body and medical surgery, the study and exposition of the morphology, location and adjacency of the structures within the body part of the local anatomy; to adapt to the requirements of painting and sculpture and other specialties of the art of anatomy; the study of the human body organs and structures in sports and training in its morphological structure and functional relationship of the sports anatomy; specializing in exposition of the clinical level of various surgical structure based on the application of the anatomical (surgical), and so on. In addition, due to the different means of research, there are also gross (macroscopic) anatomy, which is based on visual observation and anatomical manipulation, and microscopic and ultramicroanatomy, which is based on the observation of tissues with microscopes and electron microscopes. There is also human embryology or anthropogenesis that specializes in the process and laws of individual occurrence and development.
In view of the rapid development of neuroscience and in the next century may become the biological sciences and the trend of leading disciplines, as well as reference to the curricula of medical schools in developed countries, the original burden of systematic anatomy and local anatomy two courses were reformed, the establishment of gross anatomy and neuroanatomy two courses, that is, the original central nervous system separate courses, in order to adapt to the development of the world's neuroscience trend, and promote the teaching content of the rapid update of the development of neuroscience The former central nervous system was set up as a separate course in order to adapt to the development of neuroscience in the world and to promote the rapid updating of teaching contents. Most of the rest of the knowledge of the human body's morphology and structure is assigned to this course, i.e. Gross Anatomy. The teaching of this course is divided into two stages, the first stage outlines the structural knowledge of the human body systems and organs, using the lecture as the main, supplemented by the necessary evidence of internship, but the composition of the human body scaffolding of the skeletal system, at this stage, it is required to master the entire content of the required. In the second stage, anatomical observation is carried out one by one according to the individual parts that make up the human body. The basic way is that after the teacher's prompting, the trainees independently carry out the anatomical operation according to the teaching materials, obtain the knowledge of the human body's morphology and structure, and gradually cultivate and improve the trainees' ability to observe, analyze and judge, and the ability to synthesize and summarize, as well as a certain amount of anatomical operation skills. Necessary theoretical lectures are interspersed in this stage, the main task of which is to guide the trainees to serialize and theorize the knowledge gained in practice. In addition, teachers from relevant clinical departments are invited to teach the significance of some structural contents in clinical diagnosis and treatment, in order to open up the trainee's eyes and thoughts, and increase the interest in learning.
Human Anatomy - A Brief History
Anatomy is a science with a long history, and in the first medical work "Nei Jing" in the Warring States period (500 BC), the method of understanding
"Anatomy" and the names of organs have been used up to the present day. The names of the organs have been used ever since. During the ancient Greek era (500-300 BC) in Western Europe, the famous philosophers Hippocrates and Aristotle both conducted field dissections of animals and wrote treatises.
The first complete anatomical work was Galen's (130-201 A.D.) The Book of Healing, which provided a detailed and specific account of the operation of the blood, the distribution of the nerves, and many organs, but because Western Europe was in a dark period of religious rule, which prohibited the dissection of the human body, the book's main information came from the observation of animal dissections, and so there were many errors. Religious rule seriously hindered the progress of science and culture for more than a thousand years, and severely restricted the development of medicine and anatomy.
The Renaissance was a great revolution in European history, when capitalism sprang up and the yoke of the dark rule of the Church began to be destroyed, "an age that produced giants in learning, in spirit, and in character" (Engels). During this period, the ingenuity of the people was more fully realized in the creation of science and art, and Leonardo
da
Vinci, a representative of this era, not only immortalized his paintings, but also drew anatomical atlases whose precision and detail are breathtaking even today. At that time, anatomy also emerged as a giant - Vizari (Andress
Vesalius, 1514-1564), from his student days, at the risk of religious persecution, obsessively engaged in human anatomical experiments, and finally completed the "human body structure" of the magnum opus, the whole book **** seven volumes! He not only systematically and perfectly described the morphology and structure of the human organ system, but also bravely got rid of the shackles of Galen's authority and corrected many of Galen's erroneous arguments, thus making him the founder of modern human anatomy. At the same time with Vizari, a group of anatomists and doctors, discovered a number of human body structures, such as Eustachius (Eustachius), Xi Erwei (Sylvius), Varoliu (Varolio), Arantche (Aranti), Botallo (Botallo), etc., to their names are still retained in the anatomy of the structure of the textbooks. Subsequently, the English scholar Harvey (William
Harvey 1578-1657) introduced the concept of the cardiovascular system as a closed system of tubes, creating the doctrine of blood circulation, thus separating physiology from anatomy. Following the invention of the microscope, the Italian Malpighi (Malcell
Malpighi, 1628-1694) used it to observe the microscopic structure of animals and plants, opening up the field of histology, and at the end of the 18th century, the study of individual occurrence of the embryology began to take off. 19th century, the Italian scholar Golgi (Camello
Golgi, 1843-1926), who was the first to use it in the field of physiology. 1843-1926) pioneered the technique of silver-plated immersion neurons, and the Spaniard Cajal (Rom'on Y
cajal, 1852-1934) established the method of silver-plated immersion neural protofibers, thus becoming the two recognized founders of neuroanatomy.
Toward the end of the nineteenth century and the beginning of the twentieth century, due to the influence of idealism and metaphysical thought, human anatomy went into a tedious isolated static description of the human body's morphology and structure of the situation, so that some scholars feel uncertainty and disappointment, thinking that anatomy has become a "fossil", to the point of exhaustion, and can not see the prospect of development. There is no prospect of development. On the other hand, some scholars started from the dialectical view of nature, and began to seek the path of development from the aspects of functional anatomy, evolutionary morphology and experimental morphology, etc.
With the development of the anatomy, it has been a long time before the development of the science of anatomy.
With the surge of the technological revolution, biomechanics, immunology, histochemistry, molecular biology, etc., have penetrated into anatomy, and some emerging technologies, such as tracer technology, immunohistochemistry, cell culture technology and in situ molecular hybridization technology, have been widely used in morphological research, so that this ancient discipline has evoked a youthful splendor, especially neuroanatomy, which has had a rapid progress. The development of neuroanatomy, in particular, has made rapid progress. Since the founding of New China, due to the implementation of the policy of "a hundred schools of thought" and the prosperity of science and technology, medical education and anatomy have made unprecedented progress, although there was a decade of stagnation and retrogression during the Cultural Revolution, the Third Plenary Session of the Eleventh Central Committee of the Party has led to the reformation and implementation of the principle of "a hundred schools of thought" and the implementation of the principle of "a hundred schools of thought". Since the Third Plenary Session of the Eleventh Central Committee of the Communist Party of China (CPC), the Party has set things right, implemented the policy of respecting science and talents, and created a good academic environment, especially the policy of reform and opening up, which has created the conditions and possibilities for Chinese anatomists to learn and catch up with the advanced science and technology of the developed countries, and the equipments have been constantly improved and updated, and the conditions have been progressively improved and raised, and what is the most gratifying is that a large number of young and middle-aged anatomists have grown up, and they are working for the revitalization and development of the motherland. The construction of a modern socialist motherland, it can be predicted that in the near future will be a new look based on the world of anatomy.
Human Anatomy - Posture and Terminology
In order to correctly describe the form and position of human structures and their interrelationships, it is necessary to formulate a recognized uniform standard, that is, anatomical posture and orientation terminology, the beginner must accurately grasp this basic knowledge, in order to facilitate learning, communication and avoid misunderstanding.
1. anatomical posture
In order to clarify the human body and the structure of the form, location and interrelationships, first of all, must establish a standard posture, in the description of any position, are based on this standard posture. This standard posture is called anatomical posture. That is, the body is upright, eyes looking forward; feet side by side, toes forward; upper limbs hanging on both sides of the torso, palms facing forward (thumbs on the outside).
2. Commonly used orientation terms
Superior and inferior: according to anatomical posture, the head is on top and the feet are on the bottom. In comparative anatomy or embryology, the cranial cranial is often used in place of the superior due to the position of the animal and embryo; the caudal caudal is used in place of the inferior. In the limbs, proximal proximal and distal distal are often used to describe the relationship between the parts, i.e., the root near the trunk is proximal, while the relatively distant or terminal parts are distal.
Anterior anterior and posterior posterior: those against the ventral surface of the body are anterior, while those against the dorsal surface are posterior. In comparative anatomy they are usually referred to as ventral ventralis and dorsal dorsalis, and in describing the hand the palmar and dorsal sides are often used.
Medialis and lateralis: the body's midline, close to the midline is medial, relatively far from the midline is lateral. For example, the thumb of the hand is lateralized while the little finger is medialized. In describing the structure of the upper limb, since the ulna and radius of the forearm are juxtaposed, with the ulna on the medial side and the radius on the lateral side, the ulnar side can be used to replace the medial side, and the radial side can be used to replace the lateral side. In the lower leg, the tibia and fibula are juxtaposed, with the tibia on the medial side and the fibula on the lateral side, so the tibial tibial and fibular can be used instead of medial, and the radial fibular can be called
fibular.
Interior and external: used to indicate the relationship between certain structures and cavities, and should be distinguished from the medial and external.
Superficial and deep: the part near the surface of the body is called superficial, and the part that resides relatively deep inside is called deep.
3. Axis and surface
(a) Axis: Based on the anatomical posture, the human body can be set up with three typical mutually perpendicular axes, i.e., the sagittal axis is the horizontal line in the anterior-posterior direction; the coronal (frontal) axis is the horizontal line in the left-right direction; and the vertical axis is the vertical line in the up-and-down direction, which is perpendicular to the horizontal line. The axes are mostly used to express the axes along which the displacement trajectories of the bones are traced during joint movements.
(ii) plane: according to the axis can be cut into different sections of the human body or organs, in order to observe certain structures from different angles. Typical plane: sagittal plane sagittal
plane, is along the sagittal axis of the direction of the plane, it is the human body is divided into the left and right parts of the longitudinal section, such as the section just through the body's median line, it is called the median sagittal plane median sagittal
plane; coronary plane or frontal plane coronal plane or frontal
plane, a section along the coronal axis that divides the body into anterior and posterior longitudinal sections, perpendicular to the sagittal and horizontal planes; horizontal
plane or transverse
plane, a transverse section along the horizontal line that divides the body into upper and lower parts, perpendicular to the two longitudinal sections described above. It should be noted that the section of an organ is generally not based on the long axis of the body but on its own long axis, i.e., the section along its long axis is called longitudinal
section and the section perpendicular to the long axis is called transverse section.
Human Anatomy - Human Structures
The basic structures and functions that make up the human body are the following: (1) the body is divided into two parts, the upper and lower parts, which are perpendicular to the above two longitudinal sections. The basic structural and functional unit of the human body is the cellcell, between the cell and the cell there is intercellular substance intercellular substance. intercellular substance
It is produced by the cell does not have the cellular morphology and structure of the material, which includes fibers, matrix and fluid substances (tissue fluid, lymph fluid, plasma, etc.), the cell plays a supportive, protective, The microenvironment of cell survival is composed of many cells with similar morphology and function, and the cell group formed by interstitial cells is called tissue, and there are many types of human tissues, which generally belong to the four basic tissues, i.e., epithelial, connective, muscular, and neural tissues. To one kind of tissue as the main body, several kinds of tissue organic combination together, form with certain form, structure and function characteristics of the organ organ. A series of execution of some of the same function of the organ organ organic connection together, form a specific function of the system system. Composition of the human body's system has a movement system ---- including bone, bone connection and muscle, is a person to carry out the labor, displacement and maintenance of posture and other activities; structural basis; internal organs of the human body. The structural basis of various activities; internal organs are composed of the digestive system ---- responsible for the digestion, absorption and residue discharge of ingested food; the respiratory system - gas exchange; the urinary system ---- discharges the end products of metabolism produced by the tissue cells; the reproductive system ---- produces germ cells and the formation of new individuals in order to continue the race; as well as the linkage of the above systems for the execution of metabolism, providing them with nutrients and transporting metabolism. The circulatory system connects the above systems that carry out metabolism, provides them with nutrients and transports metabolites; the nervous system consists of the central part of the brain and spinal cord and peripheral nerves throughout the body, as well as the sensory organs that serve as special sensory devices, which sense stimuli from the environment inside and outside of the body and produce appropriate responses; and there are endocrine glands scattered throughout the body that have different functions. The human body system has its own unique form, structure and function, but also under the unified domination of the nervous system and the regulation of the nervous system, interconnected, mutual constraints, synergistic cooperation, *** with the completion of the unified overall activities and advanced consciousness activities, in order to achieve a high degree of unity with the ever-changing internal and external environment.
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