I From the reign of Wen and Jing to the Zhaoxuan Zhongxing
The reign of Wen and Jing in the Western Han Dynasty started from 180 B.C., when Emperor Wen assumed the throne, and ended in 141 B.C., when Emperor Jing died. However, the period of prosperity did not end after Wen and Jing, and Emperor Wu's accession to the throne pushed the Western Han Dynasty to its peak, although he changed the policies of the Wen and Jing periods. Although there were many mistakes in the late reign of Emperor Wu, the country's vitality had not been injured. After the adjustment of Emperor Zhao and Emperor Xuan, the "Zhaoxuan Zhongxing" (昭宣中兴), the prosperity of the Western Han Dynasty was maintained. At the time of Emperor Yuan's accession to the throne, the number of households in the Western Han Dynasty reached the highest point in the Han Dynasty. Thus, the end of the Western Han Dynasty lasted for more than one hundred and thirty years, bounded by the time of Xuanyuan (48 BC).
The reigns of Wen and Jing were named after Emperor Wen and Emperor Jing. And the emergence of the reign of Wenjing needs to start from the situation in the early Han Dynasty.
The Qin dynasty's harsh laws and tyrannical levies caused great chaos in the world. After the death of the Qin Dynasty, the Chu and Han Dynasty fought for power, and years of war, which plunged the people into a miserable situation of being displaced, and being forced to live in the gullies. When the Western Han Dynasty was established, the court was in great distress. The book of Han - food and foodstuffs, "contained:" Han Xing, take over the ills of the Qin, the vassals and rise, the people lost work and famine. Where the rice stone five thousand, people eat each other, the dead more than half." "The world is established, the people died cover hide, during the day the son can not have a team of alcohol, and the generals or take the oxcart." The emperor could not even sit on four horses of the same color, and the generals and prime ministers had to take the oxcart instead. It was this situation that forced the rulers to try to stabilize the society, restore production and bring the country into a normal state.
From the day he entered Xianyang, Liu Bang, the founder of Han Dynasty, announced the basic strategy to stabilize the society under the planning of his strategist Zhang Liang, which is known as the "Three Laws" in history: "Death to those who kill, injury to those who injure and theft, and the rest of the Qin Laws." (The Records of the Grand Historian (史记-高祖本本本本)), which is the first book in the history of Han Dynasty. （After the end of the war, Liu Bang took a series of measures to "save the law, lighten the field rent, tithe and tax". The political situation was stabilized and order was restored. During the reigns of Emperor Hui and Empress Lu after the death of Emperor Gaozu, the policy of rest and recuperation continued, and social conditions gradually improved.
Liu Heng, Emperor Wen of Han (reigned 180-157 BC), was the son of Liu Bang, the Gaozu, and the half-brother of Liu Ying, Emperor Hui. Originally, he could not be an emperor. During the reign of Gaozu, the seven-year-old Liu Heng was made king of Dai, overseeing present-day northwestern Shanxi, and stayed with his mother, Bo Ji, in Zhongdu (near present-day Pingyao, Shanxi), the capital of Dai, for 17 years. However, after the death of Emperor Hui, Empress Lu came to power, and the court became almost -Lv's world, causing discontent among the founding fathers of the Western Han Dynasty. Upon the death of Empress Lu, the prime minister Chen Ping, who was in charge of state affairs, and the lieutenant Zhou Bo, who was in charge of the army, annihilated the power of the Lu clan and welcomed Liu Heng, who was far away, to succeed the throne. This background had a great influence on Emperor Wen's policy. As a vassal king who had been away for many years, he had no authority at court, no inner circle, and a large number of the honored ministers who had followed Gaozu to fight for the world were still on the stage, and they were not yet necessarily convinced of the young emperor. He could only be careful and prudent in order to secure his position.
When Emperor Wendi succeeded to the throne, the central political situation was still in turmoil after the Zhulu Rebellion, the power of the local lords and kings was very strong, and the social economy had not completely recovered from the trauma of the war, so the country was poor, the treasury was empty, people's livelihoods were difficult, and industry and commerce were withering, and the Xiong Nu tribes in the north were constantly coming down to the south to loot and harass, and they threatened the capital city of Guanzhong many times. In this regard, Emperor Wen calmly dealt with the situation, stabilized the political situation, insisted on the national policy of resting with the people and practiced the art of Huang Lao, so that the economy gradually recovered, the financial resources continued to rise, and the state treasury began to be full, which opened the precursor of the reign of Wen Jing.
Liu Qi, the King Emperor (reigned 157-141 B.C.), succeeded to the throne and fully inherited the policies of the Wendi period. At that time, with the recovery and development of the social economy and the stabilization of the domestic situation, the adjustment of the relationship between the central government and the local government became a priority. In the Han Dynasty, the local system of parallel counties was practiced, and the vassal kingdoms occupied a vast area, minted money in the mountains, boiled the sea to make salt, and made the whole world rich and extravagant and disobeyed orders, which had become a trend. Emperor Jing adopted Chao's advice and took the measure of cutting down the feudal lords, which resulted in the rebellion of seven vassal kingdoms led by Liu Bi, the king of Wu. They "asked Chao to be executed to clear the side of the king", but when Chao was killed, the rebellion continued, which was called the "Rebellion of the Seven Kingdoms". Emperor Jing employed the general Zhou Yafu to quell the rebellion in three months. After that, "the vassal kings were not allowed to rule the country again, and the son of heaven set up officials", which weakened the power of the ruling forces and ensured the stability of the Western Han Dynasty and the continuous development of the rule of the world.
The rule of Wenjing was first manifested in the restoration and development of the economy. Emperor Wen was well aware of the importance of agriculture at that time, and in the second year of his reign, he issued an edict saying: "Agriculture is the foundation of the world, and the people rely on it for their livelihood. But the people or do not take care of the end of the matter, so the birth is not attempted. I am worried about it, so now I personally rate the group of ministers of agriculture to persuade the world to give the people of this year's half of the field rent." ("Han Shu - Emperor Wen Di Ji") Since then, he repeatedly issued edicts to encourage the development of production by counseling agriculture and mulberrying. Moreover, he personally participated in farming many times, and let the Empress raise silkworms herself as a demonstration. In order to alleviate the burden of the people, Emperor Wen changed the field rent from the tithe of Gaozu to the thirty-five tax in the twelfth year of his reign (168 B.C.), and in the second year, he simply exempted all the field rents. It was not until Emperor Jing succeeded to the throne that the thirty-tax-one standard was restored. At the same time, Emperor Wen also reduced the calculation tax (poll tax) from 120 to 40 cents per person per year, and changed the annual corvée from one month to three years for the strongest men. In addition, he loosened the ban on mountains, forests, rivers and swamps, provided relief to widows and orphans, and gave relief to the poor, the old and the weak, thus bringing about a full recovery of the social economy. Emperor Jing inherited the economic policies of Emperor Wen, which led to the further development of the economy, a fundamental improvement in the state's finances, a surplus in the government treasury, and a significant improvement in the people's living standards, which was known as "the family provides for the people's sufficiency.
The other aspect of the reign of Emperor Wenjing was the clearer politics. After the reign of Emperor Wendi, he created a system of examination and selection for talents. The famous young statesman Chao Kao was recommended by "those who are virtuous and able to give direct advice". Emperor Wen also encouraged his ministers to advise and discuss politics. Zhang Shizhi, a court officer, was not disobedient to the emperor when he repeatedly challenged him on the basis of the law; instead, he was always able to entrust Zhang Shizhi with important responsibilities, which showed the tolerance of an enlightened monarch.
Wen Di also made major reforms to the law. Drawing on the lessons of the Qin Dynasty, he abolished the "Slander and Slander Law", which criminalized speech, and the "Sitting Together Law", which penalized one person for committing a crime and implicated the whole family, after his accession to the throne. Chun Yu Yi of Qi was sentenced to corporal punishment, and his daughter Tie Ha asked to take the place of her body, which moved Emperor Wen to abolish the system of corporal punishment, which destroyed the limbs of the body. The leniency and simplicity of the criminal law in this period is rare in history.
On the social effect of the reign of Wenjing, various historical books have summarized and introduced. According to the Book of Han - Food and Warehousing Zhi, "At the beginning of Emperor Wu's reign, during the seventy years, the state was dead and there was nothing to worry about, except for water and drought, when the people were given enough to feed their families. All mean granary full, and the treasury surplus. The capital of the money tired of hundreds of thousands, through the rotten and can not be school; Taicang's corn Chen Chen Xiangyin, overflowing dew outside, corruption can not be eaten. The people have horses in the streets and lanes, between the roads into groups; ride lemon mare, rejected and can not be gathered. The people who guarded the streets at Yan ate the meat, the people who worked as officials had long children and grandchildren, and the people who resided in the government took the name of the official." The Book of the Han Dynasty - The Chronicle of Emperor Wen said, "The sea was rich and rich, and the people were organized on the basis of propriety and righteousness, and hundreds of prisons were broken, and a few of them were penalized." The Book of Han - The Chronicle of Emperor Jingdi says: "The Han Dynasty was revitalized, and the people were rested. As for the filial piety Wen, added to the Confucianism and frugality, filial piety Jing Zunye, fifty-sixty years between, to change the customs, the people mellow."
It was the accumulation of the Wenjing period that created the conditions for Emperor Wu of Han to push the flourishing of the Western Han Dynasty to its peak. Liu Che, Emperor Wu (reigned 141-87 BC), was an emperor of great ambition (Fig. 6). Soon after his accession to the throne, he began to change the policies he had been pursuing since the Wenjing period, turning from inaction to action, from scrupulousness to aggressiveness, and from the reverence for Huanglao to the exclusive respect for Confucianism, thus creating an unprecedented historical splendor.
During the reign of Emperor Wu, centralization was further strengthened, and the doctrine of "Heaven and Man" gave a new theoretical basis for the emperor's supreme authority, weakening the power of the prime minister. Emperor Wu also divided the country into thirteen states, and sent the assassins to supervise the counties with "six articles", which strengthened the control over the localities. Financially, the right to mint money was returned to the central government, salt and iron were managed by the government, a large number of people migrated to the northwestern frontier to build fields, and water conservancy projects were vigorously constructed in the central plains. Especially in the frontier development, with the change of foreign policy, Emperor Wu sent Wei Qing, Huo Zaodi and other generals to attack the Xiongnu in a comprehensive manner and achieved great victories, established six counties of Shuofang, Wuyuan, Wuwei, Jiuquan, Zhangye, and Dunhuang in the Hetao and Heshi areas, took control of the countries in the Western Regions, and opened up the Silk Road; he sent Tang Meng to pass through the Southwest Barbarians, and sent his troops to Dong'ou, which developed the Western Han Dynasty into a multi-ethnic state with a vast expanse of territory. In Chang'an city and other places, Han Wu Di big construction, a palace and pavilion rose, towering people in the sky. All this construction during the time of Emperor Wu was made possible by the paving of the reign of Wenjing.
But during the reign of Wen and Jing, there was already a shadow of crisis behind the rule. The beneficiaries of the political leniency of the Wendi period were first and foremost the big bureaucrats, landlords and merchants. For example, the yellow-headed Deng Tong, because of the Emperor's favor, not only received numerous rewards, but also took possession of the copper mountain in Shu County, Yan Road (present-day Ya'an, Sichuan Province, West), casting money, rich as the country, "Deng's money, half a day under the" said. Jia Yi in the "security policy" pointed out that: the Han Dynasty at that time, there is the Kingdom of the overgrown, Xiongnu invasion, the rich people luxury, the people hungry and cold and other political, ethnic and social problems, has lurked in the signs of chaos. "Those who say peace and rule are not fools but flatterers, and all of them are not factually aware of the body of rule and disorder." The book of han - food and goods "in highly affirmed after the rule of wenjing also said:" so reckless and people rich, service property proud overflow, or to the merger and annexation; the great party of the people, to arbitrary in the township. The clan has the soil, under the Secretary of State and the following competition for luxury, room and car clothes on the unauthorized death of the limit. Things are flourishing and declining, so it changes." Changes in ruling policies during the reign of Emperor Wu made the hidden dangers of the reign of Wenjing begin to appear. External military use, laying waste, squandering money, luxury, quickly spent the accumulation of the Wenjing period. "Soldiers even and not solved, the world * * * its labor, the dry and the war day breeding, the line of the people, the residence of the people to send, the harassment of the Chinese and foreign worship, the people to play my tricky method, the wealth and bribery decline and depletion and not tantalizing." (Han Shu - Food and Goods Zhi) Especially in the late years of Emperor Wu's political blunders, leading to the "witchcraft scourge", [2] almost caused a succession crisis. However, the prosperity laid down by Wen and Jing was not completely destroyed. After Emperor Wu, Emperor Zhao and Emperor Xuan, through the adjustment of ruling policies, the Western Han Dynasty continued to maintain a stable situation, known as the "Zhao and Xuan Zhongxing" (昭宣中兴). According to Jian Bozan, "The half-century period from Emperor Zhaoxuan to Emperor Yuan was a time of continued social and economic development for the Western Han Dynasty." [3]
Liu Fuling, Emperor Zhaodi of the Han Dynasty (reigned 87-74 BC), was only eight years old when he succeeded to the throne, and the actual ruler was the great general Huo Guang. Huo Guang adjusted the state policy to a certain extent, lightened taxes and rested with the people, reduced rents and levies several times, and stopped the use of foreign troops, which restored social stability. Liu Xun, Emperor Xuan Di of Han Dynasty, was originally named Liu Dixi, the grandson of Emperor Wu's hostile prince. He was deprived of the rights of the royal family due to the "Scourge of Witchcraft", and lived as a commoner in the civil society, so he had a better understanding of the hardships of the lower class. Therefore, after he became the emperor (reigned 74-49 BC), he was relatively clear and known for knowing people well, and the famous ministers he employed, such as Bing Ji, Wei Xiang, and Huang Ba, all made great achievements. In addition, Emperor Xuan paid more attention to the construction of institutions, emphasized the rule of the people first officials, and believed in rewards and punishments, history says that during this period, "the officials claimed their duties, and the people were at peace with their work". He famously said, "The Han family has its own system, which is mixed with the way of the king." ("Han Shu - Yuan Di Ji") this period, neither pure "do nothing to rule", nor pure "good and great", but a combination of the king of the road, so that the Western Han Dynasty's ruling strategy was finally finalized.
The heyday of the Western Han Dynasty began with the reign of Wenjing and culminated in the reign of Emperor Wu. After Emperor Wu, it was maintained by Emperor Zhao and Emperor Yi for a longer aftermath. As the Western Han Dynasty was in the ascendant period of Chinese feudal society, this heyday was not only maintained for a longer period of time, but also left a worthy example for future generations of rulers to follow.
Two From the Rule of Zhenguan to the Success of Kaiyuan
The Tang Dynasty's heyday began during the Zhenguan period (627-650). After the transitions of Emperor Gaozong, Empress Wu, Zhongzong, and Ruizong, the heyday reappeared during the Kaiyuan years (713-742) of Emperor Xuanzong. During the Tianbao (742-756) years, various social conflicts began to intensify. By the time the An Shi Rebellion broke out, the Tang Dynasty's heyday came to an end, lasting more than 100 years. Unlike the heyday of the Western Han Dynasty, the Tang Dynasty had its ups and downs, with two peaks in the Zhenguan Period and the Kaiyuan Period, during which there were several decades of downturn.
The Sui dynasty ended the division of the North and South Dynasties and reunited China. Emperor Wen, though headstrong, was quite good at governing the country. However, after Emperor Yang succeeded to the throne of the Sui Dynasty, the tyrannical levy, extravagance, abuse of people's power, resulting in a "crop crop out of time, the fields more barren" situation. Especially the failure of the three conquests of Goryeo, quickly intensified social conflicts, resulting in chaos. The Tang Dynasty gained power on the basis of the chaos at the end of the Sui Dynasty and set things right, creating another great age of ancient China.
After the establishment of the Tang Dynasty, Li Yuan, the first son of Gaozu, made his eldest son, Li Jiancheng, the crown prince, and appointed his second son, Li Shimin, the king of Qin. Li Shimin, relying on the achievements and power he had built up while fighting the world, staged the Xuanwumen Incident, killing Li Jiancheng and his younger brother, Li Yuanji, and seizing the throne, with the name of Zhenguan (贞观). During the Zhenguan period, Tang Emperor Li Shimin (Figure 7) learned the lessons of the fall of the Sui Dynasty and took a series of measures to alleviate social conflicts, creating a new situation of political clarity and social stability, known as the Zhenguan rule.
Tang Gaozu and Tang Taizong were both politically enlightened, and after the establishment of the Tang Dynasty, they focused on the lessons of history, and were able to learn from the fall of the Sui Dynasty in every way. The personal experience of the anti-Sui-struggle, so that Li Yuan father and son of the governance of the country has a more sober understanding. As early as the beginning of the Tang dynasty, Tang Gaozu said to Pei Silence: "Sui end of the road, up and down the blind, the Lord is proud, but flattering subjects. The top does not hear the faults, the bottom does not do their duty, to make the gods of the earth and grain fall into danger, the death of the hands of the pikers. I am the reorganization, aiming at peace, pacify the chaos appoint military officials, keep into the commission of the civilian officials, so that each can show their ability, in order to rectify the ineptitude." (The Old Book of Tang - Sun Fuga biography) to the hands of Tang Taizong, he further recognized the power of the people. Zhenguan eighteen years, Taizong had warned Prince Li Zhi said: "boat so than the ruler, the water so than the populace. Water can carry the boat, also can overturn the boat. If you are a human lord, you can't be afraid!" ("zhen guan political - teach the prince of the kings") this "boat can overturn the boat" analogy, in the ruler is very rare. Because of the Tang Taizong has such a realization, Zhengguan years of ministers advise, but also more to the death of Sui as an example. Such as the ZhenGuan two years, WangSi to Taizong said: "the former QinHuangHanWu, outside is very poor war, inside is ChongLuXia palace, manpower is exhausted, disaster attempts to rise. He does not want to be at peace with people? Lost so that the way of peace also. The death of Sui, YinJian not far away. Your Majesty personally inherited its ills, know so easy." It was asked to learn the lessons of Qin, Han, and Sui, to change course, and to adjust policy (Zhenguan zhengyi zhengzhi - zhennong zhen). It was against this background that the rule of Zhenguan was formed.
Two aspects of Tang Taizong's politics stand out: one is the use of people, and the other is the acceptance of advice. These two aspects played a great role in the formation of the rule of Zhenguan. Yuan Zhen once summarized: "room, Du, Wang, Wei's disciples, discussing the possibility of the front; the world of the four sides of the people, said the gains and losses in the outside. Not four or three years, and the world of Da Li, is not the Emperor alone in the smart on it? Cover also group under each make the best use of words, in order to publicize the development of smooth in the world also." ("Yuan Zhen set" volume three two)
In the use of people, Tang Taizong knows "the key to governance, but in the people, with non-talent, it will be difficult to rule" reasoning, many times issued an imperial edict to seek wisdom. He also criticized the prime minister fang xuan ling, du ru hui, asked them not to get caught up in trivial matters, but to open ears and eyes, seek to visit the wise and philosophical as a matter of business. He was able to appoint people on the basis of merit and did not avoid relatives and enemies. Wei Zheng, a famous minister of Zhenguan, was a subordinate of Emperor Taizong's enemy, Li Jiancheng, and once gave Li Jiancheng a suggestion to get rid of Emperor Taizong. After the Xuanwumen Incident, Emperor Taizong put aside his personal grudges and reused Wei Zheng as his assistant in ruling the country. He also paid attention to the selection of talents from the lower ranks. Zhenguan three years, general Chang He wrote a letter to the government, Taizong with his own understanding of Chang He, that the zhangzhang very He made, asked, Chang He admitted to be one of his own protégé Ma Zhou on behalf of the proposed. Emperor Taizong immediately summoned Ma Zhou, to be reused, and gave Chang He silk 300 pi to encourage the recommendation of wisdom. Emperor Taizong advocated "using people like a tool, each taking advantage of their strengths", and did not bury talents with his own opinion. In his later years, his own way of employing people summarized: "the way of employing people, especially not easy. His so-called virtuous, may not be all good; the so-called ruins, may not be all evil." Emphasize the broader discussion, a comprehensive understanding of the shortcomings of the long, give full play to the role of talent. Tang Taizong also pay more attention to local officials, in order to examine the local governor, he wrote the name of the local governor and assassin on the screen, record their merits and demerits of the line, as the basis for the deposition. In order to better employ people, Taizong also paid special attention to the adjustment of the relationship between ruler and minister. He drew on the lessons of the Sui emperor's suspicion of ministers, emphasized: "casual monarchs and ministers suspect each other, can not be prepared for all the liver and diaphragm, really for the country's great harm also." "The positive director of the evil ministers, can not be reason; positive ministers to serve the evil master, also can not be reason. However, if the ruler and the ministers meet and have the same experience as fish and water, then the sea can be peaceful." ("The Chingguan Political Essentials - seeking advice") Therefore, he paid special attention to "harnessing excellence, and treating people with respect".
In the admonition, Tang Taizong attaches importance to listening to different opinions, "fear of people do not say, guide to make admonition". In the second year of the Zhenguan period, he discussed with Wei Zheng about the light and darkness of the monarch, and Wei Zheng replied, "The reason why the monarch is bright is that he listens to both; the reason why he is dark is that he is biased." He particularly appreciated this remark and encouraged his ministers to give advice everywhere. During the Zhenguan period, Wei Zheng was the most famous one for his advice. He advised Emperor Taizong hundreds of times, and he was not only frank, but also dared to argue in front of him. In order to encourage ministers to advise, Emperor Taizong said: "Even if it does not fit my heart, I will not be disobedient. If that is the prudent responsibility, I am afraid that people are afraid of war, will not be willing to say more?" ("zhen guan political essentials - seeking advice") although he sometimes can not listen to excessively blunt advice, but he can generally restrain himself. For example, in the fourth year of the Zhenguan period, Zhang Xuansu, a counselor, advised him to stop the repair of the Qianyuan Hall in Luoyang, and he was so vehement that he thought that Emperor Taizong of the Tang Dynasty was inferior to Emperor Yang of the Sui Dynasty. Emperor Taizong asked in return, "If you think I am inferior to Emperor Yang, how can I be as bad as Jie Zhou?" Zhang Xuan Su did not give in and replied, "If this temple is built, it is said to be the same as chaos." Emperor Taizong finally restrained his anger, said: "I do not think about it, so to this." He gave him two hundred silks to encourage him to do so ("贞观政要-纳谏"). Once Wei Zheng made him angry, Emperor Taizong said to Empress Changsun, "I will have to kill this farmer." Empress Changsun persuaded him, "I have heard that the Lord is clear and the ministers are straight, and Wei Zheng is straight because of Your Majesty's clearness." (Ziji Tongjian, Volume 194, March 6, Zhenguan 6), so that he was dissuaded from the idea of killing Wei Zheng. When Wei Zheng died, Emperor Taizong said to his ministers, "If you use copper as a mirror, you can correct your clothes; if you use the past as a mirror, you can know the rise and fall; if you use people as a mirror, you can understand the gains and losses. I always keep these three mirrors, in order to prevent their own faults. Now Wei Zeng demise, so die a mirror carry on." ("Zhenguan Political Essentials - Seeking Advice")
During the Zhenguan period, Emperor Tang Taizong paid great attention to stabilizing the society and developing the economy, and said, "The way of a ruler must be to save the people first." ("Zhenguan political essentials - the way of the king") from the "survival of the people", Zhenguan's political affairs from the "simple and quiet". Specific practices include four aspects: first, "to eliminate luxury and save money", second, "light corvée and thin tax", third, "selection of incorruptible officials", and fourth, "so that the people are clothed and fed. The fourth was to "keep the people well fed and clothed". In order to restore and develop production, the Tang Dynasty implemented the equalization system from Wude to Zhenguan, granting 100 mu of land to adult males, of which 20 mu were permanent fields and 80 mu were divided into portions. Although the equalization of fields was not thorough enough, it played a positive role in restoring the agricultural economy at that time. Combined with the equalization system, the Rent and Transfer Law was also implemented, in which the recipient households paid two stones of rent per year, two zhang of silk, three taels of silk, and twenty days of service, or three feet of silk per day in lieu of service. The implementation of the Rent and Mediocrity Adjustment Law reduced the burden of the people to a certain extent, and also ensured the stability of the state's financial resources. Especially the Nayong service, and the excessive corvée service in the Sui Dynasty formed a clear contrast, which is conducive to the stabilization of society. These policies had a significant effect, and by the third year of the Zhenguan reign, the economy of Guanzhong had recovered. After the eighth year of Zhengan, the country was greatly governed. "The merchants and travelers in the wild, no more thieves and robbers, the prison is often empty, horses and cattle in the field, outside the house is not closed. And frequently to the rich, rice bucket three or four money. Travelers from the capital to the Lingbiao, from Shantung to Canghai, are not a gift of food, take to the road." ("Zhenguan political system - government")
In the judicial aspect, Zhenguan period emphasized the benevolence as the basis for the end of the penalty. According to Emperor Tang Taizong, "The dead are not to be regenerated, and the law is to be used in a lenient and simple manner." ("Zhenguan political - Criminal Law") in the Zhenguan years, but also established the death penalty system, that is, to carry out the death penalty for criminals, must be repeated to the emperor three times in order to use the sentence. By the fourth year of Zhenguan, the national order had returned to normal, and the society was in the initial situation of living in peace and happiness. "In this year, twenty-nine people were sentenced to death, and several criminal measures were taken. East to the sea, south to the ridge, all foreign households are not closed, travelers do not finely chopped grain." (The Old Book of Tang - Taizong Ji)
It is also worth noting the ethnic policy of Tang Taizong. At the beginning of the Tang Dynasty, the Turkic Turks became a major threat to the Central Plains. Soon after Emperor Taizong ascended the throne, the Turkic Jieli Khan led his troops to the outskirts of Chang'an, forcing Emperor Taizong to enter into an alliance with Jieli on the Bianqiao Bridge. From the third year of Zhenguan, Taizong sent Li Jing and others to lead a large army in a full-scale counterattack against the Eastern Turkestan, and won a great victory. Later, he defeated the Tukhun, conquered Gaochang, repelled Xue Yantuo, and set up the Anxi Capital in Guzi, controlling the Western Region, and the Silk Road, which started from Chang'an, entered its heyday. However, Taizong did not just conquer the border minorities, but focused on peaceful interaction. To the minority leaders frequently implement the policy of peace. Princess Wencheng of Tibet married to Songtsen Gampo of Tubo, is a prominent example. Tang Taizong summarized his own ethnic policy in his later years, said: "since ancient times are noble China, low barbarians, I only love as one." (Ziji Tongjian, Volume 198, May, 21st year of Zhenguan) Starting from Emperor Taizong, tie-up prefectures and states were set up in the areas of minority nationalities which were subordinate to the Tang Dynasty. The so-called tie-up prefectures were those prefectures under the jurisdiction of the central government, but these prefectures followed the original way of rule and living customs of the local ethnic groups, were not included in the "household formation", did not bear servitude, and had a high degree of autonomy. These policies, so that he won the *** with the embrace of the various ethnic groups, enjoying the praise of "days Khan".
Of course, the reign of Zhenguan was not without its flaws. Emperor Taizong's later years, in the use of people and advice are not as good as in the early period, and luxury, luxury, arrogance is increasing. In this regard, he himself also recognized, before his death, he admonished the Prince, said: "I have been in the position, not good much. Embroidered jewels and jades are not endless before, the Palace of the Palace repeatedly made, dogs and horses, eagles and falcons no far not to travel in the four directions, for the Tonto bother. These are my deep fault, do not think it is and the law. Gu Gu I help the people, its benefits more; the creation of the district summer, its work. Benefit more loss less, so people do not complain; work is too small, so the industry is not degraded; but than the best of the best, certainly more shame." ("Ziji Tongjian" volume 198, the first month of the twenty-second year of Zhenguan) It is this sober understanding of Taizong himself, for the continuation of the rule of Zhenguan laid the foundation.
After the death of Emperor Taizong, Emperor Li Zhi of Gaozong assumed the throne (reigned 649-683 AD). Though weak, he was largely able to pursue the enlightened policies of the Zhenguan period, and he corrected some of the failures of the late Taizong, which led to sustained economic development, growth of the household, and the continuation of the Zhenguan rule. "The government of Yonghui (the first year of Emperor Gaozong's reign), the people were at peace, and there was the legacy of Zhenguan." (Ziji Tongjian, vol. 199, first month of the first year of the Yonghui reign) Soon after, the great government fell into the hands of Wu Zetian. After Gaozong, Li Xian (683-684, ruled twice from 705-710) and Li Dan (684, ruled twice from 710-712), were only nominal emperors, with Wu Zetian as empress dowager in charge. By 690 A.D., Wu Zetian simply claimed the title of emperor herself and changed the country's name to Zhou, which is known in old history books as the "Wu-Zhou Revolution".
The "Wu-Zhou Revolution" was only a transfer of power within the dynasty, which had a greater impact on the upper officials, but not on the lower levels of society. During the reign of Wu Zetian; the loss of power of the Li emperors caused corresponding palace struggles and rebellions of some members of the royal family, but did not result in major social upheavals. In order to consolidate her rule, Wu Zetian cracked down on the patriarchal aristocracy, emphasized the introduction of talents from the lower ranks of the common people, advocated the system of informing the public, and reused coolies such as Zhou Xing and Lai Junchen in order to strengthen her control over the ranks of the officials. Favored Xue Huaiyi, Zhang Yi Zhi, Zhang Changzong, etc., and the official atmosphere was then corrupted. She also made major repairs to palaces, built Mingtang, and favored monks, which increased the burden on the society. However, she also focused on the development of agriculture, and took a lot of measures to encourage farming and mulberrying, the economic situation has improved, and the society is relatively stable. It was said that Wu Zetian was "the one who authorized the upper level to rule the lower level". At the beginning of the reign of Emperor Gaozong, the country **** 3.8 million households, by the end of the year of Wu Zetian, has increased to 6.15 million households.
The high point of the Tang dynasty was realized during the Kaiyuan years of Emperor Xuanzong Li Longji. After the restoration of Emperor Zhongzong (in 705, Zhang Hanzhi and others restored the Tang dynasty to the throne, also known as the Five Kings' Coup or Zhongzong's coup), and Empress Wei's Rebellion (in 710, after the violent death of the Emperor Zhongzong, Empress Wei and Princess Anle plotted to take power by installing the young emperor, Li Chongmao. Li Longji and Princess Taiping staged a coup, killed Empress Wei and installed Emperor Ruizong), Princess Taiping's Rebellion (When Emperor Ruizong was in conflict with Prince Li Longji, Emperor Ruizong passed the throne to Emperor Xuanzong, and in A.D. 713, Princess Taiping plotted a coup, which was quelled by Emperor Xuanzong). After a series of coups, Emperor Xuanzong of Tang restructured his officials, reorganized the forbidden army, restored political stability, and history entered the Kaiyuan period.
During the Kaiyuan period, Emperor Xuanzong of the Tang Dynasty was able to bring the Tang dynasty to its climax. During the reign of Emperor Xuanzong, all the officials and ministers aspired to the rule of Zhenguan and modeled themselves on it in every way. The far-reaching book "The Essentials of Zhenguan" was written by Wu Jing, a historian, and presented to Emperor Xuanzong as a model of governance during this period. However, due to the change of the times, the rule of Kaiyuan was different from that of Zhenguan.
The first step of Emperor Xuanzong was to select and respect his ministers and to stabilize his team of prime ministers. Since the reign of Emperor Gaozong, with the change of the political situation, the collective chancellorship of the Tang Dynasty became problematic, with too many candidates and too frequent changes, which negatively affected the political affairs. During the period of Emperor Xuanzong, the candidates for prime ministers were stabilized to one to three, and it was clear that one person was mainly responsible for the relative concentration of power, and the emperor did not intervene too much, which was conducive to the implementation of political affairs. This initiative brought the role of the prime minister into full play. Yao Chong and Song Jing, the ministers who were responsible for the flourishing of the Kaiyuan era, became famous because of this measure. Sima Guang said: "Yao, Song successive as a prime minister, Chong good should become business, King good law-abiding to hold the right; the two have different aspirations, but the concerted support, so that the service of peace, the punishment is clear, the people are rich and affluent. In the Tang Dynasty, the wise prime ministers were called Fang Du in the front and Yao Song in the back, and no one else could compare with them." (Ziji Tongjian, Volume 211, December 4, Kaiyuan) However, it was also the reduction and stabilization of the prime ministers that sowed the seeds of the later dictatorships of Li Linfu and Yang Guozhong.
The Emperor knew that the rule of the people must be preceded by the rule of officials, and immediately after his reign, he abolished a large number of "oblique officials" that had existed since the reign of Emperor Zhongzong. The so-called oblique sealing of the official, refers to the appointment of not according to the normal procedures of investigation, but through a special relationship with informal official documents "ink edicts" appointed officials, similar to today's "backdoor". In the second year of the reign of Emperor Kaiyuan, he also dismissed the officials appointed by Emperor Wu during the reign of Emperor Zhongzong on a large scale, as well as the officials appointed to test and inspect the schools. These officials were all appointed outside the official establishment for the sake of enjoying the benefits. Emperor Xuanzong made great efforts to rectify this situation, and to a certain extent corrected the atmosphere of the officialdom. In order to correct the habit of emphasizing Beijing officials over foreign officials since the beginning of the Tang Dynasty, Emperor Xuanzong emphasized the exchange between local officials and Beijing officials, and attached importance to the selection of assassins and county magistrates. Kaiyuan four years, he personally examined the newly appointed magistrates, "asked An Ren Cai a", the worse 45 people repatriated to their homes, and reprimanded the magistrates presided over the selection of the Ministry of the Ministry of the Ministry of the Ministry of the Ministry of Lu Congxiang and Li Chaoyin. Kaiyuan thirteen years, he personally selected a number of central government has the prestige of the Secretary of the Department of the Governor as local assassins, and give a banquet to give poetry farewell. History says: "Xuanzong since the beginning of the throne, the political affairs, often self-selected governor, county magistrate, warning to say, and good officials in the state and county, the people get peace and happiness." (New Tang Book - Criminal Law Zhi)
Kaewon period, Xuanzong issued a large number of edicts to encourage farming, disaster relief, recruiting migrants, in the states north of the Jianghuai generally set up the Changping warehouse. To Kaiyuan eight years later, the economy has appeared in the "grain abundance, all things Fuanan, the people have nothing to do, with the ability to * * * chemistry" of the situation. Water conservancy construction is also widely carried out, the construction of water conservancy projects more than thirty.
Kaiyuan years of the construction of the system, reached the highest achievement of the Tang Dynasty. Various laws and regulations of the Tang Dynasty, under the auspices of Emperor Xuanzong, were either newly enacted or revised to form a complete system. Including the "Kaiyuan Ge", "Kaiyuan Houge", "Kaiyuan Decree", "Tang Six Canons", "Kaiyuan Rites" and other contents.
By the late Kaiyuan period, the heyday of the Tang dynasty reached its peak. The New Tang Book - Food and Wine Zhi ", "was the time, the sea is rich, rice bucket price of thirteen. Qing, Qi bucket only three money. A silk, money two hundred. Roads and restaurants, with wine and food to wait for pedestrians. There were donkeys in the stores, and they traveled thousands of miles without holding a foot of soldiers." Tang's "Kai Tian Chuan Xin Ji" says: "The river is clear and the sea is calm, and things are rich and popular. The Anxi countries were all leveled as counties. Since the open gate westward, stretching more than 10,000 miles, into the Huangshui River tax. Around the hidden library, property mountains, can not be compared. Four sides of the rich, the people rich, tube household more than 10 million, rice a bucket of three or four Wen. Strong people, do not know weapons. The road was not cleaned, and the travelers did not carry food." Western historians also agree, "It was an age of consolidation, an age of wise use of imperial power, an age of restraint, and above all, an age of no outward laborious and ambitious ventures." [5]
But the rule of the Kaiyuan did not last long. By the Tianbao years, Emperor Xuanzong of Tang began to be complacent. "After a long time of carrying on the peace, he was contented with his ease and happiness, and gradually moved away from the end of the scholar and closer to the villain." In the selection of the prime minister, successively reused "honey-tongued" Li Linfu and the small man Yang Guozhong, gullible clan general An Lushan, indulging in love with Yang Guifei, there were major political mistakes. In the first half of the reign, Emperor Xuanzong was able to listen to some advice, but during the Tianbao years, he could not listen to any dissenting opinions. The accumulation of state finances provided the Tang dynasty with the capital to make a good deal of money. Tianbao period, Xuanzong internal construction, building Xingqing Palace and Huaqing official, building Taoist temples in the country, shaping the statue of Laozi and his own; external large border work, many times launched against the Tubo, Nanzhao