1 The Earth rotates constantly around the Earth, which is called the Earth's rotation. The direction of the Earth's rotation is from west to east, and the time for one week of rotation is about 24 hours. The side facing the sun is day, and the side behind the sun is night. The rotation cycle lasts for one year Around March 21, the day when the sun's rays are directly on the equator is the spring equinox, and the day when they are directly on the Tropic of Cancer is the summer solstice Around September 23, the day when the sun's rays are directly on the equator is the autumnal equinox, and the day when they are directly on the Tropic of Capricorn is the winter solstice (refer to Figure 1.19)
3 March to May is the northern hemisphere spring months, June to August is the summer months, and September to November is the fall months, and December to February is the winter months. The seasons in the Southern Hemisphere are the opposite of those in the Northern Hemisphere.
4 Figure 1.20
Section 3: Maps
1 Scale, direction, and legend are the basic elements of a map.
2 Directions can be determined by following the pointers on the map or by using a grid of latitude and longitude (Activity 1.1 and 2).
3 Elevation of places is indicated on a map by joining points of the same height to form lines. Connecting points with the same elevation on a map is a contour line (refer to Figure 1.27 1.28 1.29)
4 Choose maps with a range of scales according to your needs (Activity 3.1)
Chapter 2: Land and Oceans
Section 1: Continents and Oceans
1 Seventy-one percent of the Earth's surface is ocean, and 29% of the Earth's surface is land.
2 Familiarize yourself with the distribution of continents and oceans and understand the shapes of continents (refer to Figure 2.6)
3 Asia and Europe are bounded by the Ural Mountains, the Ural River, the Great Caucasus Mountains, and the Turkish Straits
Asia and Africa are bounded by the Suez Canal (refer to Figure 2.7)
Section 2: Land and Sea Changes
1 Cite some examples of land and sea changes. Himalayan marine animal fossils, the remains of ancient rivers on the seabed in the eastern part of China
2 The world is roughly divided into six plates, the Asian-European Plate, the African Plate, the Indian Ocean Plate, the Pacific Plate and the American Plate
The Antarctic Plate, the Volcanic Seismic Belt is generally located at the edge of the plate, and the plate is still in constant motion (refer to Fig. 2.19)
3 The Himalayas are formed by the subduction of the Indian Ocean Plate to the Asian-European Plate (refer to Fig. 2.19)
3 The Himalayas are formed by the subduction of the Indian Ocean plate to the Asian-European plate (refer to Figure 2.22). The Red Sea is formed by the tectonic rift between the African plate and the Indian Ocean plate (refer to Figure 2.21)
Chapter 3: Weather and Climate
Section 1: Changing Weather
1 Familiarize yourself with weather symbols commonly used in weather maps of urban areas (Figure 3.6)
Section 2: Temperatures and their distribution
1 The thermometer used to observe temperatures is a thermometer used to measure the temperature of a city. 1 The thermometer used to observe the temperature is 1.5 meters above the ground using the Celsius scale Four observations are made each day, usually at 8:00 4:00 20:00 2:00 Beijing time
2 Deriving data from temperature graphs Drawing temperature graphs based on the data (Fig. 3.14, Table 3.1)
3 Higher temperatures at low latitudes Low temperatures at high latitudes Lower temperatures at high latitudes Higher temperatures at the same latitude Higher temperatures in the summer over the land Low temperatures at the sea Low temperatures at the same latitude In winter the opposite is true Higher land elevations are more common. The higher the land elevation, the lower the temperature
4 Isotherm graphs show the horizontal distribution of temperature (refer to Figure 3.15)
Section 3 Precipitation and the Distribution of Precipitation
1 Histogram of Precipitation by Months Showing Seasonal Variations in Precipitation Over the Year
2 Deriving Data from a Histogram of Precipitation Histograms Drawing a Histogram of Precipitation from Data (refer to Figure 3.20 and Table 3.2)
3 Using Isotherms to Show the Seasonal Variation in Precipitation
2 The Isotherms are used to show the seasonal variations in precipitation. p>3 Use the isoprecipitation line graph to show the distribution of precipitation in each region
4 Precipitation is affected by the location of latitude and land and sea location Topography Generally, low latitudes have more precipitation, and high latitudes have less precipitation. The west coast of the continent near the line of return has less precipitation than the east coast, and inland areas of mid-latitudes have less precipitation. East and west of the continent have more precipitation, and mountainous windward slopes have more rainfall than leeward slopes have less precipitation
Section 4: The World's Climate
1 The world's climate can be broadly categorized as follows. Activities and sometimes disasters
Chapter 4: Population and Settlement
Section 1: Population and Ethnicity
1 The natural rate of population growth is equal to the birth rate minus the death rate, which indicates the rate of population growth
2 Population density is equal to the number of people per unit of surface area divided by the unit of surface area, generally counting the number of people in one square kilometer
3 Population density varies from region to region. Population density varies from one region to another. Southeast coastal areas of Asia, Europe, North America, and the coastal areas of the continents are more densely populated.
4 Some countries implement birth control policies, while others encourage childbearing.
5 Current demographic problems include demographic expansion, population urbanization, population aging, and so on.
6 There are three major races of people in the world, the yellow, white, and black.
7 The white race is mainly found in Europe, northern Africa, southwestern Asia, the oceans and the Pacific Ocean, and the Pacific Ocean. in Europe Northern Africa Southwestern Asia Southern Oceania Central North America Eastern South America
Yellow people are mainly found in Eastern Asia Northern North America Northern South America Madagascar
Black people are mainly found in Northwestern Oceania Southern Africa
Section 2: Languages and Religions of the World
1 Distribution of the World's Major Languages (Refer to Figure 4.13)
2 The working languages of the United Nations are Chinese English French Russian Spanish Arabic
3 Christianity Islam Buddhism is the three major religions of the world
4 Christians are mainly located in Europe America and Oceania Islamists called Muslims are mainly located in western and southeastern Asia North and eastern Africa Buddhists are mainly located in the eastern and southeastern Asia
5 Recognize the representative architecture of the three major religions (Figure 4.15)
Section 3: Human Settlements
1 Conditions for Settlement Formation Water Terrain Land Resources Climate
2 Describe the differences between rural and urban landscapes (Figure 4.17)
3 The natural environment determines settlement architecture. >3 The natural environment determines the characteristics of the architectural style of settlements
Chapter 5 Development and Cooperation
1 The Five Principles of Peaceful ****treatment ○1 Mutual Respect for Sovereignty and Territorial Integrity ○2 Mutual Non-Aggression ○3 Mutual Non-Interference in Domestic Affairs ○4 Peaceful ****treatment ○5 Equality and Mutual Benefit
2 There are four aspects of a country, namely, size, population, political system, and the level of development
3 There are more than 20 developed countries, mainly in Europe, North America and Oceania, and more than 150 developing countries, mainly in Asia, Africa and Latin America
4 Developed-country industries are mainly high-tech industries, and developing-country industries are mainly primary processing of manufactured goods. Developed-country agriculture is mainly large-scale mechanization, and developing countries are mainly semi-mechanized and manual production. Developed countries' service industry is well-equipped. Developing countries' financial, tourism and real estate industries are the mainstay.
5 No country exists in isolation in the world, and it is always linked with other countries to varying degrees. Developed countries need to buy raw materials and sell their products to developing countries, and developing countries need to bring in capital, equipment, advanced production technology and management experience from developed countries. The basic purpose of the United Nations is to promote national development and maintain world peace. The main organs of the United Nations are the United Nations General Assembly, the Security Council, the Economic and Social Council, the Trusteeship Council, the Secretariat and the International Court of Justice. Since its establishment, the United Nations has done a great deal of work in the maintenance of world peace and the promotion of international cooperation and development. -Asia
Section 1: The Natural Environment
1 Asia is the largest continent in the world in terms of area and latitude, with the longest distance from east to west
2 The central part of Asia is high and surrounded by lowlands, and its rivers originate in the central mountainous plateau, and radiate out to the surrounding oceans
3 The Caspian Sea is the world's largest lake, with salt water, and the world's deepest and largest reservoir of water. Lake Baikal is the world's deepest and largest freshwater lake
The Dead Sea is the world's lowest point on land The Arabian Peninsula is the world's largest peninsula The Malay Archipelago is the world's largest archipelago
4 Asia spans the tropical temperate and frigid zones Bordered by oceans to the northeast and south Asia's climate is complex and diverse with a pronounced monsoon and a wide range of continental climates (Figure 6.9).
Section 2: The Human Environment
1 Asia is the most populous continent. Population puts heavy pressure on resources and the environment (Activity 1.2)
2 Asia has a diverse range of cultures. The three birthplaces of human civilization in Asia are the Yellow River and the middle and lower reaches of the Yangtze River, the Indus River basin, and the Mesopotamian plains (Figure 6.16). 6.16
3. Learn about the differences in housing attire in different parts of Asia (Figure 6.17 and Activity 2.1)
4 The economic development of Asian countries varies greatly. There are very few developed countries, and there are also great differences among developing countries
Chapter 7: Our Neighboring Countries and Regions
Section 1: Japan
1 Japan is an island country in the northwestern part of the Pacific Ocean consisting of Hokkaido, Honshu, Shikoku, Kyushu, four large islands, thousands of small islands and the surrounding sea. Japan has a curvy coastline with many good harbors, and is located at the junction of the Pacific Plate and the Asian-European Plate, so it is prone to many volcanoes and earthquakes.
2 Japan's resources are scarce, so it imports large quantities of raw materials from abroad, and then processes them for sale, resulting in a well-developed processing and trading economy.
3 Japan's main industrial zones are the Keikyo Industrial Park Nagoya Industrial Zone, Osaka Industrial Zone, Setouchi Industrial Zone, Kitakyushu Industrial Zone (Figure 7.13)
4 Japan's main ethnic group is the Yamato people, and the country has many cultural exchanges between East and West
Section 2: Southeast Asia
1 Southeast Asia is situated at the crossroads of the Pacific and the Indian oceans between the Malay Peninsula and the island of Sumatra, and the Strait of Malacca, which is the main gateway from Europe, Africa, and the Middle East. The Straits of Malacca is the shortest route from Europe and Africa eastward to the ports of Southeast Asia and East Asia, and is an important sea route connecting the Pacific Ocean and the Indian Ocean
2 Southeast Asia has a tropical monsoon and rainforest climate with high temperatures and heavy rainfall, and therefore rice is the main food crop. Thailand is the world's largest producer of bananas and the Philippines is the world's largest banana producer and exporter of coconuts Indonesia is the world's largest producer of coconuts Malaysia is the world's largest producer of palm oil
3 Describe the characteristics of the tropical monsoon climate and the differences between rainforest climates
4 Southeast Asia's Central and South Asia Peninsula is mountainous and riverine, mostly north-south, and most of the large cities are located in alluvial flats along the rivers
I am a sophomore, too, and I'm summarizing my own
1.
1, currently known about 1.5 million species of animals, these animals can be divided into two categories: one is the vertebrate, their bodies have spinal columns; the other is the invertebrate, their bodies do not have spinal columns. (Note that it is " vertebrates have a spine in their bodies", not a spine, which I missed and am reminded of here)
2. Diversity of organisms: 1, diversity of species; 2, diversity of living environments; 3, diversity of 00 ways of locomotion.
3, fish can live in the water, two characteristics are crucial: (1) can rely on swimming old to obtain food and defense against enemies; (2) can breathe in the water.
4. Fish can overcome resistance in the water structure: streamlined (pike-shaped) body; body surface secretion of mucus.
5. When a fish swims, it relies on its trunk and tail to swing from side to side to generate forward momentum; it relies on its dorsal, pectoral, ventral, and anal fins to maintain balance; and it relies on its caudal fin to keep its forward direction.
6, in the difficult to directly take the object of study to do experiments, sometimes with a model to do experiments, that is, imitation of the object of the experiment to make a model, or imitation of some of the conditions of the experiment to carry out experiments, such experiments are called simulation experiments.
7, a variety of fins in the movement to play an auxiliary role in the coordination.
8. Gills are the respiratory organs of fish.
9. Gills are rich in capillaries and hence they are bright red in color.
10. The gill filaments are numerous and thin in order to enlarge the area in contact with water, which facilitates adequate gas exchange. Gills are not easy to absorb oxygen in the air, after the fish leave the water, the gill filaments cover each other, reducing the area of contact with the air, can not get enough oxygen from the air, and therefore die of oxygen deprivation.
11, the gills of fish vital to breathing in the water features: gill filaments bright red, containing rich capillaries; gill filaments and more and thin.
12. Water flows in through the mouth of the fish and out through the back edge of the gill cover.
13. The water flowing out of the gills of the fish has less oxygen and more carbon dioxide.
14. Gas exchange O2 in the water - in the capillaries of the gill filaments
Co2 in the gill filaments - in the water
15. The main features of a fish are: the body surface is often scaly, it breathes through the gills, and it swims through the oscillation of the tail and the coordination of the fins.
16, have a mouth without anus, food from the mouth into the digestive cavity, digested food residues are still by the mouth out of the body, these animals are called coelenterates.
17. Animals that rely on shells to protect their soft bodies are called mollusks.
18. Animals with hard nails on their body surface are called crustaceans. Crustaceans breathe through gills.
19. Coelenterates, molluscs and crustaceans are invertebrates.
20, a variety of organisms in the water are an important part of the aquatic ecosystem, through the food chain and food network, forming a close and complex links between them, and at the same time are affected by the aquatic environment, changes in their species and the number of growth and development of the human life will be affected.
21. Compared with the aquatic environment, the terrestrial environment is much more complex. (1) it is drier; (2) there is a big temperature difference between day and night; (3) it lacks buoyancy in water; (4) there is gaseous oxygen; (5) the terrestrial environment is complex and variable.
22, land-dwelling animals' adaptation to the environment: 1, generally have structures that prevent water from dissipating; 2, are not subject to the buoyancy of water, and generally have organs that support the body and locomotion for a variety of locomotor modes of movement, such as crawling, walking, jumping, running, and climbing, in order to forage for food and to avoid predators; 2, generally have a variety of respiratory organs that can breathe in the air and that are located inside the body, such as the trachea and lungs; 4. generally have well-developed sensory organs and nervous system, able to respond to the changing environment in time.
23. annelids are not mollusks; annelids are invertebrates.
24. An animal whose body consists of a number of annular segments that resemble each other is called an annelid.
25. Earthworms live in humus-rich, moist soil because they are cold-blooded and the temperature does not vary much for them to live.
26. Body segmentation allows the earthworm's body to move flexibly.
27, earthworms rely on muscle contraction and diastole, bristles support and fixed movement.
28, earthworms do not have a specialized respiratory system, earthworms rely on respiration can secrete mucus, always keep wet body wall to complete. Earthworm body wall is densely covered with capillaries, the oxygen in the air first dissolved in the mucus on the surface of the body, and then seeped into the body wall, and then into the capillaries of the body wall. The carbon dioxide in the body is also discharged from the body surface through the capillaries of the body wall.
29, earthworms can not maintain a constant body temperature, and can only live in the deeper layers of the soil where the temperature does not vary too much.
30. Thermostats are taller and better adapted to their environment than non-thermostats, which facilitates normal metabolism.
31, the constant temperature of the rabbit, not only rely on the body surface of the hair, but also need to develop the nervous system, circulatory system, respiratory system *** with the coordination.
32. The rabbit's hind limbs are longer, the forelimbs are shorter, and the hind limbs are muscular and suitable for jumping.
33. Incisors - cut off food Canines - tear food Molars - grind food
34. The structure and parts of the rabbit's heart and lungs are similar to those of the human body. The similarity of the structure and location of the heart and lungs of the rabbit to those of the human body suggests that humans and rabbits are closely categorized as mammals.
35. Diet Phytophagous (e.g., rabbits)
Carnivorous (e.g., wolves)
Omnivorous (e.g., humans)
36. The cecum, which is mainly used for digesting fibers, is well developed in herbivorous animals.
37. The teeth of the rabbit are differentiated into incisors and molars, which are suitable for cutting plant fibers and molars for grinding food. Rabbits have a well-developed cecum on the digestive tract, these are adapted to their plant-eating habits.
38. Rabbits have a well-developed brain and nerves throughout the body, and well-developed limbs, enabling them to sensitively perceive changes in the external environment and quickly respond accordingly.
39, mammals are the highest animals, is a vertebrate, there are many kinds of species, there are about 4000 kinds of the earth, in addition to very few species, have the body surface hairy, foetal, breastfeeding, etc. (other features: four chambers of the heart, breathing with the lungs, a constant body temperature, is a thermostat, teeth have incisors, canines, molars, the differentiation)
40, the world's birds there are There are more than 9000 kinds of birds in the world.
41. The shape of the bird is streamlined to reduce the resistance of the air during flight.
42, the bird's feathers are divided into positive feathers and down feathers (have a warming effect), positive feathers have a feather shaft, the wings are fan-shaped, can increase the area of contact with the air, easy to fan the air and fly.
43. The pectoral muscles of the bird are well developed and attached to the keel, which facilitates flight by fanning the air.
44. The bird's skeleton is hollow, light and strong, with a prominent sternum and keel protrusion, which facilitates the attachment of well-developed pectoral muscles to the sternum (keel protrusion), reduces weight and facilitates flight.
45, birds digestive characteristics: 1, large amount of food, digestive capacity, to meet the flight of energy digestion; 2, feces are not stored, reduce weight, conducive to flight; 3, the rectum is short, frequent defecation.
46. The heart of the bird is well developed and has a strong working capacity, and the blood has a strong ability to transport oxygen, which is favorable for flight.
47. Birds have well-developed air sacs (not respiratory organs) in their bodies, which assist the lungs to breathe and meet the need for oxygen during flight.
48. The whole body of a bird is designed for flight.
49. Thermostats Mammals
Birds
50. Birds have a feather-covered body, forelimbs that turn into wings for the ability to fly quickly, air sacs in the body to assist the lungs in respiration, and a high and constant body temperature.
51, insects are the most diverse class of animals, known species more than 1 million species (accounting for 4/5 of animal species), insects have three pairs of feet, can crawl; some insects foot specialization into jumping feet, can jump; most insects have wings, can fly. Insects are the only invertebrates that can fly.
52, insect wings and bird wing structure is different, but in terms of suitable for flight have these **** the same point: are conducive to the flight of the fan structure, the operation of these structures are caused by the contraction and diastole of the muscles, can be in the air to produce upward lift and forward momentum, relative to the body, are light, the characteristics of the area is large, and is conducive to the fanning of the air and flight.
53, wing on the insect life and distribution of the important significance: conducive to feeding, to escape from the enemy, to expand the range of activities and distribution, is conducive to the search for a mate, looking for a suitable place to lay eggs.
54, the external characteristics of insects: the insect body is divided into head, thorax, abdomen three parts, the locomotor organs - wings and feet are born in the thorax. The thorax has well-developed muscles attached to the exoskeleton, which is a tough shell covering the surface of the insect's body (moulting occurs) and serves to protect and support the soft internal organs and prevent evaporation of water from the body.
55, insects in the classification of arthropods, arthropods in addition to insects, there are spiders, centipedes, shrimp, crabs, etc., their *** with the same characteristics are: the body consists of a lot of body segments; the body surface has an exoskeleton; foot and antennae divided into sections.
56, juveniles live in the water, breathing with gills, after metamorphosis, and thereafter amphibious life, breathing with lungs, while using the skin to assist respiration, such animals are called amphibians.
57, animal behavior depends on certain body structure.
58. The locomotor system of mammals is made up of bones and muscles (bones, skeletal muscles (motor muscles), and connections between bones (such as joints)).
59. The locomotor system is composed of bone, skeletal muscle, and bone connections (such as joints).
60. There are 206 bones in a human being Skull, sternum, ribs (inactive)
Torso bones (semi-mobile)
Limb bones (mobile) Bone connections (joints) that are mobile
61. There are 26 vertebrae in a human being (semi-mobile bone connections)
62. Joint structures: joint head, joint capsule (which is a ligament that makes the joint strong), joint cavity (with synovial fluid) ), joint cavity (has synovial fluid, makes the joint flexible), joint fossa, articular cartilage (cushioning effect, but not part of the joint structure).
The joint head and the articular fossa are collectively called the articular surface.
63. Joints act as fulcrums in movement and are points around which bone rotates.
64, the main joints of the human body: upper limbs shoulder joints lower limbs hip joints
elbow joints knee joints
wrist joints ankle joints
finger joints toe joints
65, all vertebrates have joints.
66. The elbow, hip, knee and ankle joints are easily injured during sports.
67, how to protect the joints in sports: First, do a good preparation exercise before exercise; second, the intensity of exercise should be appropriate; third, wear wrist and knee pads.
68, skeletal muscle (is the organ) in the middle of the thicker part is called the muscle belly, the two ends of the thinner cream-colored part is called tendon.
69. Skeletal muscle has the property of contracting when stimulated.
70, why the skeletal muscle can pull the bone: when the skeletal muscle is stimulated by the nerve transmission contraction, it will pull the bone around the joint activity, so the body will produce movement.
71. The muscles attached to the bone are always moved by two sets of muscles in conjunction with each other.
72, there are more than six hundred skeletal muscles in the human body, and when the arms are naturally lowered, the biceps and triceps are stretched.
73. When the elbow is flexed, the biceps muscle contracts and the triceps muscle expands; when the elbow is extended, the triceps muscle contracts and the biceps muscle expands.
74, of course, movement is not accomplished by the motor system alone, it requires the control and regulation of the nervous system, it requires the supply of energy, so it also requires the cooperation of the digestive system, respiratory system, circulatory system and other systems.
75, a sentence summarizes the role of bones, joints and muscles in movement: skeletal muscle contraction, pulling the bone around the joints, so the body produces movement.
76, animal behavior is diverse, from the behavior of the way to obtain, animal behavior can be broadly divided into two categories, a class of animals are born, by the genetic material in the animal's body determined by the behavior, known as congenital behavior; the other is in the genetic factors on the basis of the role of the environmental factors, by life experience and learning and obtaining behavior, known as learning behavior.
77. There are many behaviors that are the result of a combination of both innate and learned behaviors, such as the migration of birds.
78, innate behavior is the most basic conditions for the survival of animals, learning behavior so that animals are more adaptable to the changing environment, better survival.
79, the higher the animal, the stronger the learning ability, the more able to adapt to the complex environment. Similarly, the more complex the environment, the more behaviors to learn.
80, innate behavior has great limitations, if a creature only innate behavior without learning behavior, will be eliminated by nature.
81, for a person, the training of skills and the learning of knowledge is compatible with the developmental stage of the brain, once you miss the critical period of learning is difficult to make up.
82, the characteristics of social behavior: 1, often form a certain organization within the group; 2, there is a clear division of labor between members; 3, some groups also form a hierarchy.
83. Hierarchies are formed in groups according to individual size, strength, health and ferocity.
84. The "leader" has priority for food and mates, and for nesting sites, and the other members of the colony make submissive gestures to it, do not dare to fight back against its attacks, and are also responsible for directing the actions of the whole colony.
85. The movements, sounds and smells of animals can all play a role in transmitting information.
86, the significance of social behavior to the survival of animals: rely on the strength of the group is often easier to obtain food and victory over natural enemies, can effectively ensure the reproduction of the species, so that the group better adapted to the environment, to maintain the life of the individual and the race.
87. In nature, the exchange of information among living things is universal (man has a human language and beasts have an animal language). It is because of the existence of material flow, energy flow and information flow, so that the connection between living things is intricate, "pulling one hair and affecting the whole body", living things and the environment to become a unified whole.
88. There is an interdependence and mutual constraint between various organisms in the food chain and food web. In the ecosystem of the number of various organisms and the proportion of always maintained in a relatively stable state, this phenomenon is called ecological balance.
89, the role of animals in nature: 1, animals play an important role in maintaining ecological balance; 2, animals can promote the ecosystem of the material cycle; 3, to help plants pollinate, spread seeds; 4, biological control.
90, biological control is the use of organisms to control pests and diseases. In addition to insect control, there are bird control, fungus control and so on.
91, the role of animals in people's lives: rich in nutrients for people to eat; play a role in medicine and health care; in the ornamental, entertainment, literature and art have a certain image; people in life used to compare some images or some features; animals spread to humans some diseases (harm).
92, in the ecosystem, the number and proportion of various organisms are always maintained in a relatively stable state.
93. Scientists are now studying the use of organisms (such as animals) as "production plants" to produce certain substances needed by human beings, which are called bioreactors.
94. The benefits of bioreactors: they save money on building plants and buying equipment, and they reduce complex production procedures and environmental pollution.
95, scientists through careful observation and study of living things, imitating certain structures and functions of living things to invent and create a variety of instruments and equipment, this is bionic.
96. A bacterium or fungus that multiplies and forms an aggregate visible to the naked eye is called a colony.
97. Bacterial colonies are relatively small, the surface or smooth and slimy, or rough and dry fungal colonies are generally several to dozens of times larger than bacterial colonies. Molds form colonies that are often fluffy, flocculent or cobwebby, and sometimes in different colors such as red, brown, green and black.
98. Bacteria and fungi, and their different species, can be roughly distinguished from each other by the form, size and color of the colonies.
99. Colonies are often used as an important basis for strain identification.
100. Cultivation of bacteria or fungi in general: ① preparation of nutrient-containing nutrient base. ② medium for autoclaving and cooling. (3) a small amount of bacteria or fungi on the medium (this process is called inoculation). ④The petri dish is placed in an incubator that maintains a constant temperature (it can also be placed in a warm place indoors) for cultivation.
101.Bacteria and fungi are widely distributed organisms in the biosphere.
102.Bacteria and fungi also need certain conditions to survive. For example, they need moisture, suitable temperature, a certain space to live, and organic matter.
103. bacteria and fungi cannot be found in an environment that has been subjected to rigorous high temperature mold.
104.Lactobacilli can break down organic matter into lactic acid only under anaerobic conditions.
105.All bacteria are single-celled organisms.
106.Some bacteria are connected to each other in clusters or long chains, but each also lives independently.
107.Schematic diagram of cell structure:
108.Nutrition is divided into autotrophic and heterotrophic.Both bacteria and fungi are heterotrophic.Heterotrophic is further divided into saprophytic and parasitic.
109.Some bacteria grow and develop late, the individual shrinks, the cell wall thickens, and spores are formed. Spores are the dormant body of bacteria, have a strong resistance to the adverse environment. Small and light can also be scattered everywhere with the wind, fall in the appropriate environment, and can sprout into bacteria. The rapid reproduction of bacteria and their ability to form spores make them ubiquitous. (Bacteria divide very quickly)
110. Yeast is a unicellular fungus. Molds, edible mushrooms, and macrofungi are multicellular fungi.
111.
112.Fungi have no chloroplasts in any of their cells and undergo sporulation.
113.Yeasts are germinating.
114. Penicillium: spores are greenish and arranged in a broom-like pattern. The mode of nutrition is heterotrophic.
115. Aspergillus: spores are multi-colored and arranged in a radial pattern. The mode of nutrition is heterotrophic.
116.The fungi that cause moldy food are molds.
Bacteria Fungi
Similarities There are no chloroplasts in the cells, and they utilize readily available organic matter (heterotrophic).
Differences Unicellular, no organized nucleus, divide to reproduce. There are both unicellular and multicellular species with a true nucleus in the cell, mostly sporulating reproduction.
117.Comparing Fungi and Bacteria
118.Role of Bacteria and Fungi in Nature (1) Participate in the cycle of matter (contribute to the cycle of matter); (2) Cause disease in animals and plants (3) Live with animals***.
119.Most bacteria and fungi are decomposers in ecosystems.
120.In the natural cycle of matter, bacteria and fungi break down the remains of plants and animals into carbon dioxide, water, and inorganic salts, which have the ability to be absorbed and utilized by plants, which in turn make organic matter. Bacteria and fungi play an important role in the cycling of carbon dioxide and other substances in nature.
121. Some species of bacteria and fungi live as parasites, absorbing nutrients from living plants and animals and from the human body, causing different diseases in plants and animals and in people.
122.*** living together, interdependent, mutually beneficial, once separated, neither can live independently, a phenomenon called *** life. (Once separated, they can live independently, a phenomenon called ****survival)
123.Parasitism (often harmful); ****survival (mutually beneficial).
124. state of yeast fermentation:
organic matter yeast carbon dioxide + water + energy (more) [mostly used to make bread]
organic matter yeast carbon dioxide + alcohol + water + energy (less) [used to make wine]
125. fermentation: anaerobic respiration of microorganisms (also called respiration)
126. food Spoilage is caused mainly by bacteria and fungi that can obtain organic matter from food and grow and multiply in the food, leading to spoilage, so that an important problem in food preservation is preservation. The main principle on which the prevention of food spoilage is based is to kill or inhibit the growth and reproduction of the new army and fungi within the food.
127.Some fungi can produce substances that kill certain disease-causing bacteria, and these substances are called antibiotics (antimicrobials).
128.Scientists can also use modern technology to transfer certain genes from other organisms into some bacteria, and only these bacteria are able to produce medicines (use bacteria as bioreactors).
129.In 1928, British bacteriologist Fleming invented antibiotics.
130.The significance of classification of organisms: to understand the diversity of organisms, to conserve the diversity of organisms, to make the position of each species on the classification of organisms clear at a glance, and also to further clarify the affinities between organisms.
131.Biological classification is mainly based on the degree of similarity of organisms (morphological structure, internal structure, physiological function) to divide organisms into species and genera and other different levels. The basic unit of classification is species.
132.In angiosperms, flowers, fruits and seeds are often used as an important basis for classification.
133.Each kingdom is divided into six smaller classes, which are, from largest to smallest: kingdom, phylum, order, order, family, genus, and species.
134.The more taxonomic units **** there are between two organisms, the closer they are related.
135. order < subphylum < phylum
136. the higher the taxonomic registration, the greater the differences between the shoots of internal affairs, the fewer the ****similar features, and the greater the number of organisms contained.
137.The intrinsic form of biodiversity is the diversity of genes, and the extrinsic form is the diversity of species.
138.China is the richest country in gymnosperms, known as the "home of gymnosperms".
139. The characteristics of organisms are controlled by genes
140. The destruction of the polyandry of an ecosystem leads to the loss of the diversity of species and the diversity of genes.
141. In natural conditions, on average, a bird goes extinct in 2000 years. On average, a mammal goes extinct in 8,000 years.
142.The causes of threats to biodiversity are (1) changes and destruction of the living environment, (2) predatory exploitation, (3) environmental pollution, and (4) biological invasion.
143.In order to protect biodiversity, the relevant laws are the Environmental Protection Law, the Marine Environmental Protection Law, the Forest Law, the Grassland Law, the Fisheries Law, the Wildlife Conservation Law, and the Soil and Water Conservation Law. (Each law is preceded by "the People's Republic of China")
144.The establishment of nature reserves is divided into: in situ protection and enclosure protection.
145.Forests are home to 50% to 90% of the world's terrestrial organisms.
146.Dove trees are angiosperms. The silver fir is a gymnosperm.