Definitions directly related to bioethics, medical ethics and bioethics who can be defined or two separate disciplines? When you prepare the "Encyclopedia of Bioethics, Warren Imperial Encyclopedia" written in 1971 it is clear that the names of medical ethics, medical ethics, bioethics are two different concepts.
Daniel Callahan, Bioethics into Bioethics, Encyclopedia of Medical Ethics and Bioethics, second edition of "Medical Ethics is an ancient discipline, represented by a narrow scope, emphasizing only the moral obligations of the doctor and the doctor-patient relationship, and although it is still important today, it does not sufficiently cover all the issues. "Bioethics is a broader field that includes the life sciences, medicine, biology, environment, population and social sciences, medical ethics, an important aspect of bioethics, and other parts of the subject, bioethical issues.
The International Encyclopedia of Medical Ethics for the Discipline of Bioethics.
Different views: medical ethics experience ancient medical ethics research in modern medical ethics (traditional medical ethics), life can be seen from the stage of development of our sector of medical ethics, ethics. Some scholars believe that today's medical ethics has developed to a new stage, the stage of population and health and ethics. It can be seen that the coverage of our main bioethical medical ethics as the stage. J. Stewart Horner in the encyclopedia of applied ethics, this definition as well: medical ethics and bioethics are often confused, but the latter is an aspect of the former, but after more than 30 years has been dominant. Definition of morality
Thomas Percival of England published a book "Medical Ethics" and "Morals" for the first time in 1803. He did not define medical ethics from the previous, but the material can be analyzed to understand his concept of medical ethics. He says: "Ethics is "human knowledge" and "broad morality? Responsibility" comprehensive "," the "general system of medical ethics was in the nineteenth century the official behavior or exchange between moderation, guided by the principle of integrity in the medical field." This view has been widely accepted. In the 1920s, a professor of pharmacology in the United States, Chancey Leek, questioned this view. Percival Street's misuse of the word "ethics" ... It is the way members of a professional management, etiquette, and career interact with each other. ... However, true ethics and etiquette, he says, "are different from etiquette, and you should understand, from a philosophical point of view," he says, "a true theory of medical ethics based on an understanding of the relationship between doctor and patient, doctor and society in the 1970s dealt with in the twentieth century, and the American medical ethicist KD Clouser counts the number of medical ethical authorities licked from the point of view of medical ethics. The authoritative lick of ethics from the point of view of his first edition of the "Encyclopedia of Bioethics: Daily Medical Ethics in general without difference in essence the same general rules and ethical norms that we use in the definition of medical ethics: "general moral principles, ethics, addressing the development of the medical practice and medical sciences, the relationship between medical care, society and human beings. The relationship between medicine, society and mankind has formed a science, both ethical norms ethics is a branch that is part of medicine. "
At home and abroad in the past overemphasis on medical ethics, medical ethics norms ethics is an application often prone to medical ethics misunderstood, can only be understood as the application of norms ethics learned to use generic ethical and moral principles to solve specific problems, not only incorrectly in order to safeguard the patient's health, but also ignore the role of the drug itself on the one hand, and the nature and Purpose of the drug, the treatment of the disease of medical ethics, we can see that the drug itself contains intrinsic morality - the interests of the patient and many ethical issues arising from the development of medical science and technology, on the other hand, the role of medical ethics is also obvious, Chen even succeeded in the "surgical authentic prophet of Confucianism management, then we will know that the principles of medical science, said: "The combination of the two is the ancient Chinese Confucian medicine; European medieval concept of medical ethics, medical ethics, doctors and patients is a Christian Anglo-American model of ethical relationships in medicine led to the principle of autonomy in the South of Europe is the doctor-patient relationship oriented to mutual trust in the concept of the relationship model, you can be better the role of medical ethics factors. Simply put, the development of two factors of medical ethics is an important clue to the interaction between medical technology and ethics. Objects and content of medical ethics
The doctor's professional ethics (morality) is synonymous with the main purpose of the study of medical ethics, said morality, the study of medical ethics as a subject. Comrade Qiu's medical ethics and medical ethics, the relationship between the tracks, not only the issue between them is different in two ways: medical ethics massacre school of content than the name of the general moral morality, there is no theoretical value rather than proving that we are talking about ancient medical ethics, scientific, in fact, a systematic application of the discipline of ethics, medical ethics is a discipline of study because it is the only doctor should follow the ethical norms and guidelines The code of this study is only the doctor-patient relationship. The systematic discipline of the relationship between medical personnel, human and social, health, medical and social performance extends to the core of the relationship between doctor and patient.
The entire modern comradeship of medical ethics research mainly consists of six areas: medical ethics, clinical ethical issues, ethical issues, biotechnology and other high-tech applications, health policy, the relationship between the subject and the object of morality, health ethics, medical ethics, and basic theoretical research, which is typical of the stages of development of medical ethics, bioethics.
In fact, regardless of the emphasis between the terms in the "encyclopedia of ethics, medical ethics, it is not a long fixed medical ethics and bioethics", its meaning and principles, as well as the management of health care as an industry, health care funding, to change the influence of cultural factors, the medical community as a whole,
The historical development of medical ethics, the relationship between subject and object in health policy, health ethics, basic theoretical research, which is typical of the stage of development of medical ethics. >
Historical Development of Medical Ethics
The Hippocratic School may have been the norm for the earliest medical community to recommend and physicians, but the idea could spread long ago, mainly because of the Christian idea in some respects, rather than the concept of abortion, and to abide by it with them? confidentiality of the patient, both in the mainstream thinking of the ancient Greek medical community. Many scholars emphasize that the prognosis of the disease, the prognosis of the Hippocratic period could play a safe role, for insurance purposes, the doctor knew what he could and could not do, thus protecting the doctor against failure of treatment or denial of treatment to the accused. Traditional Christianity emphasized the integrity of the victory over disease as an important role, the doctor should disregard the danger to himself in order to save the patient the doctor held the philosophy and values of charity? Responsible for the poor, in fact, the early Christians did the same probably no more than the hospitals of this emerging institution, the Judeo-Christian spirituality of the brotherhood of the sick, the elderly, the homeless poor and the homeless, and many were responsible for arranging conference room boards, health care, but outside of the control of good Christian medicine or science, some of the churches allowed to look at books and see only some of the writings of the medieval writings of Hippocrates and Galen The Black Disease claimed countless lives, doctors did not treat it well, many doctors had fled the plague, but many clergy stayed in the cities, praying for the departed, doing spiritual consolations, and letting those I believe in God, but also glad that in the Renaissance, especially in the mechanical sciences, physics, and chemistry, brought about by the scientific revolution, great successes were achieved, and a firmer stride was taken in medicine . Harvey's kinetic theory eventually replaced Galen's theory of blood movement, based on the mechanically dominant conception of anatomy and physiology Experimental medicine in the late 18th century was guided by the idea that considerable progress had been made in rapidly expanding pathology in the 19th century, before with the full advance of surgical techniques, anesthesia, and sterilization were impossible, and in the late 19th century, surgery had made real progress. Recent experiments respecting the moral philosophy in the mind of the doctor, science, the task of medicine noblest than to extend human life a series of new scientific diagnostic and therapeutic results, the doctor's sympathy for the patient, the reality of scientific protection to deal with the disease in order to alleviate the patient's suffering, is the most basic manifestation of medical humane rescue in the beginning of the 18th century, the norms of the British, ethical doctors seldom referred to the Hippocrates, but to pay attention to the etiquette, dress and behavior, there are four main aspects of the English gentleman and ladylike style Modern England's contribution to the medical derby Individuals: John Gregory, published in 1772, "Almsgiving Dr. Thomas Guise's Duties and Qualifications for the Office of Physician should not weaken the charitable overtones of Christianity, believing that it comes to the building of a competitive career, as he firmly believed that the desire for The desire for wealth is crucial; Thomas Beddoes emphasized the application of legal means to rid rivers and lakes; Thomas Percival's "Medical Virtue" was published in 1803 and was designed primarily to prevent and resolve disputes within hospitals The religious overtones of medical virtues have been greatly weakened, and medical virtues have begun to take on both a scientific and a secular Thomas Perceval Street the greatest contribution of the twentieth century. The greatest contribution to the process of morality code example
The American Medical Association for the first time in 1847, people have begun to notice that the cost of hospitalization has risen, especially after the end of World War II, hospitals for medical diagnosis and treatment land X-ray diagnostic imaging, introduced in 1972, computers have made great strides essentially think of tomography (CT) scans and MR*** vibration, spent a lot of money on medical equipment, in about 1960 the first immunosuppressants were introduced and organ transplantation entered a new era, of course, there was moral and legal confusion over how organs should be transplanted to other issues when, in the 20th century, health care and medical research major advances were made but could also lead to more ethical issues in the Nuremberg Code in 1946 and the World Medical Association in 1964, the The Declaration of Helsinki (latest edition in 2000) is an important document, medical research involves human beings.
Before the twentieth century, traditional medical ethics was largely limited to the training of physicians, clinical After the end of World War II, the practice of ethical codes of conduct, prolonging life is not in the new difficulties medical ethics continued to evolve among non-physicians in the twentieth century, and in the 1950s, Joseph Fletcher and Paul Ramsey (including the per capita theology) wrote extensively about this, allowing people to begin to look for in the medicine and medical science, and technology at the social and ethical levels: the first was the previously closed tradition of Chinese medicine in which philosophers, theologians, lawyers, sociologists, and psychologists had unique perspectives outside of their medical careers, and these perspectives favored the development of medicine in people in the medical profession began to embrace these external perspectives; the third, the scope broadened to include medical morality and its application to a wider range of fields? Social and ethical issues, such as distributive justice in society and health services, etc. Thus, in the 1960s, medical ethics had begun to shift the social and ethical standards that guide clinicians in health and illness from their original behaviors, and all about the United States cared about people began to focus in the 1970s on patient autonomy, which is an important change in medical ethics today.
Medical ethics of the nature of the patient's interests, but specifically with the patient's interests are aligned with the changing times, changing people's perceptions of the shift. Medical model performance generally by the past "medical" to cure sick people, in the 1950s, to extend life is a good patient, and after the end of World War II, to extend life is not the only goal, the quality of life is very important to respect the patient's desire to performance. BR p>
"Bioethics" Bioethics (bioethics), explanation of the term: the first sentence of the second edition of the "Encyclopedia" has a saying that in the "Bible" there is nothing new under the sun, but that since the However, since the 1950s and 1960s, from the rise of bioethics, then this statement is not true. Due to the emergence of new technologies, changes in the culture and philosophy of life and death, endurance of suffering, their right to life, the perceived obligations of others and society, and therefore the change of a completely new field - bioethics, which represents a completely new concept, which not only opens up a new field (the intersection of ethics and life sciences), but also represents a change of academic thinking, the impact of political factors on biomedicine and the environment, and the need for a new approach to bioethics. Narrowly speaking, bioethics refers only to the new field, much changed, science- and technology-oriented Broadly speaking, it has been extended to law, policy, culture, history, disciplines, mass media, philosophy, religion, literature, and other social sciences, Bioethics Dictionary Entry In the broadest sense, it is the moral turmoil faced by terminally ill patients and individual healthcare workers that extends to society as a whole citizens and legislators at the bedside in an effort to develop fair health or environmental policy choices in the face of the overall interests of public **** and social life
Defining Morality
Bioethics terminology was used at the first, however, time, by Wisconsin biologists and cancer researchers at the University of Wisconsin's Valentino Chrysler Porter in 1970, soon after Dutch Embryology in Washington. Physiologist and production scientist Andre Hellegers',, work, work used a different meaning than his colleagues at Georgetown University's John F. Kennedy Institute for the Establishment of Human Reproduction and Bioethics in 1971. Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, the so-called "new discipline" of biological knowledge and knowledge of human value systems, which is at the conjunction of the sciences and the humanities, bridges the Middle East and the Middle East from one to the other, helping to sustain and promote the survival of the human race, and to promote the narrow field of application of the ethics of medicine and biomedical research of his colleagues in the global André Hellegers Civilization 1971 Warren Empire, Prepare to Write Your Encyclopedia of Bioethics", shows that the name, Medical Ethics, Encyclopedia of Medical Ethics and Bioethics initiated two distinct concepts. The broad west medical ethics is a traditional formulation, narrow in scope, emphasizing only the moral obligations of physicians and the doctor-patient relationship, it is no longer sufficient to cover all issues. It is claimed that from a broad perspective, bioethics, medicine, biology, environmental sciences, population and social sciences, bioethics a wide range of ethical issues in the life sciences, including traditional medicine and so on.
To some extent, the more comprehensive Raanan Kuala Lumpur Dictionary of Bioethics entry. Raanan Kuala Lumpur bioethics entry "Encyclopedia of Applied Ethics" writes: the discipline of bioethics bio-practice (including medical care, including veterinary medicine, including ethical issues from the point of view of other health professionals in the field from the meaning of a word). Widely in addition to the study of biological sciences, includes environmental ethics (including other parts of the relationship between humans and animals and nature, including pollution of the environment), ethical issues of reproduction, genetic and demographic research, ethical, social, political and moral issues such as unemployment, poverty, discrimination, crime, war and persecution on the negative impact on human health. The people involved in this discipline is also broad, in addition to doctors, nurses, life scientists, patients, academic subjects in the field of philosophy, moral theology, legal ethics, economics, psychology, sociology, anthropology, history of the school (tertiary subjects).
The theme of the third international conference of Daniel Wickler on bioethics - bioethicists and ethics of social responsibility has changed, bioethics has gone through three phases, in the fourth phase, the first phase of the process of the birth of the professional code of conspicuous behavior if allowed to advertise medical care without denigrating their peers, this phase is known as the stage of medical ethics, and the second phase. Jonsen (Albert R. Jonsen) in his "The Birth of Bioethics Formation," says: "Historians and his colleagues bioethics stage, the stage in which doctors in the ancient medical profession fundamentally changed paternalism, and to be honest, the public began to question the right of this stage of bioethics academic union Patient bioethicists need new ways of thinking and approaching these new philosophical theories and approaches, not individual moral behavior, nor traditional moral principles to define a physician's career, but social and political philosophy, especially the distribution of social justice, the third phase of bioethicists health care policy and health economics, health officials in many countries, government bioethics in many details? The ethical phase of scientific consultation is known as bioethics of the health of the population, which is not the same as the second phase, including as the traditional doctor-patient relationship outside the scope of the professional codes of conduct for health care workers and the public, the third phase, the whole of biology and the social sciences, the human and management sciences, is also characterized by its own characteristics: the emergence of high-tech medicine and apps is not the central problem, but only one no longer pay attention to the reasoning of the physician's dilemma, can get a rare health resources and other focus on the multiple factors affecting many developing countries, the growing inequality of society in the United States, the suffering of many patients in the view between *** same health, there are many signals that tell us that more than the majority of the population, the situation of health care is worsening, not improving, and our goal should be to larger portion of the public **** healthcare system, to accomplish this task we must make those unfamiliar with areas of knowledge, such as public **** health, international healthcare spending - effectiveness analysis, healthcare system volume, and many new areas, new knowledge.
Historical Background of Bioethics
Bioethics first arose in the United States, and its unique historical background bioethics in the broadest sense, from the number of people in 1900, from the development of medical science in the twentieth century, the money invested in health care services, the enjoyment of the services of health care workers and specialists, see the complexity of the health care delivery system and a generation of ethical issues, scientific, technological and other aspects of its number can be seen from three threads: hospitals accounted for the shift in role to the development of science and technology and the dominance of medical specialists as early as the end of the 19th century, the number of hospitals in the United States has been increasing at a rapid rate and eventually became the main source of medical equipment and technology to provide medical care, interventions in diagnostic and therapeutic.
Centralization of medical care provided in hospitals became more efficient, economical, and able to meet the needs of the Hill-Burton Act of 1946, the federal government to support local hospitals, and the new National Health Insurance tended to reimburse hospitals for medical care rather than private clinics or home-based U.S. hospitals for services
The revolution of 1900 or thereabouts Laying the groundwork for what has become the reform and health care medical practice, the American Medical Association, an integral part of the educational system to improve health care delivery. Continued support for government medical sciences, especially in postwar secondary medical education and patient care, research and demonstration. In the 1950s, the National Institutes of Health began to establish and support clinical research, attempting to involve more and more patients and health volunteers so involved in the subject. Within
As medical science and technological knowledge increased, so many doctors became a narrower and narrower scope, limited to the formation of the AA Society of Professional Ophthalmologists in 1917, more and more specialist associations were founded in the first half of the twentieth century, and other rhodamine progressively improved the social and economic status of doctors who were very aware of their attitudes to life and the way in which many of their patients live their lives.
Overall, in the 1960s began to emerge. Medical care in hospitals, the promotion of professional dehumanization and organization of medical care, while neglecting the social, behavioral, environmental and humane aspects of illness, overemphasized the biological and physiological aspects of the disease, the patient complained that the doctor had lost sight of the patient's holistic care, and that the close relationship between the change from the previously familiar had become that of a "stranger at the bedside.
The emergence of bioethics may have such a misunderstanding, a simple understanding of bioethics has just been generated because of biomedical high technology, which is a major factor, but in fact, the emergence of bioethics is the result of the interaction of a variety of factors, in addition to the above medical factors, morality, culture, and social movements involved in the emergence of public **** medical problems have also played an unprecedented role in the increase of The use of complex medical and humanitarian, increased urbanization and the consequent uneven distribution of the population barriers to access to health services; higher standards of living and education, the degree to which the increase in thinking between the (sick) is more complex significantly raised awareness of self-protection in the 1950's and 1960's caused the government to come to increase investment in biomedical research subject protection issues, employing people to buy health insurance in the 20th century. In the 1930's, due to the introduction of basic mechanisms for significant improvement because of an overly preoccupation with the ability of people to purchase insurance, the cost of medical technology services rose dramatically and waned, and the majority of Americans were still unable to obtain proper medical care. Additionally, the eventual consumer rights movement in the 1960s (the 1960s protests against poor diets) began to affect the health care system, the patient's rights movement in the 1970s was part of the larger civil rights, and the women's movement was also introduced focusing on concerns for female patients but also affecting birth control and abortion, as well as family and population policy, in the same time cycle The growth of the peace movement and the ecological movement led to international health concerns due to wars, environmental and pollution issues, and because of the threat to human health posed by nuclear weapons, the overall social responsibility of physicians to reflect on the role of medicine in the health and maintenance of the world's population was challenged in 1971 by the integrity of the social and cultural aspects of society and trends in the development of biomedical sciences*** The same trend that constituted the Bioethics Movement began in the 20th century The late 1960s, and the social and political crises of the American nation in the 1980s, in short, bioethics as we know it today is rooted in the public's concern for the rights of the individual, social justice, and the quality of the environment, the cultural identity of a remarkable era.
Heart transplantation in 1967, from a specific event after the 1960s, kidney dialysis, the successful widespread use of organ transplantation, but problems were encountered in the process of selecting dialysis recipients; due to the discussion of the criteria and Harvard Brain Death Medical Criteria is very safe abortion, contraceptive pills, prenatal diagnostics, the widespread use of ICUs artificial respirators have been widely available but the Removal of the ventilator in the case of Quinlan attracted widespread attention and the concept of comfort has undergone a dramatic shift from the traditional to at-home, in the hospital; the results of World War II biomedical applications of research, several cases have been informed by patients in the U.S. who have consented to, or else resulting from, the ethical condemnation of human experimentation, Rachel Carson's "Silent Spring ", set off a wave of environmental protection, democratic rights movement published in the United States, individualism, the rise of the feminist movement, but it is a parallel treatment of culture, the main reason is to keep up with these changes, bioethics why it can cause so much concern public and historical background
> There is no doubt that the United States is the bioethics field in the The most important sign of leadership in the field of bioethics, was founded in 1969, renamed Hastings, was founded in 1971, after the report of the Kennedy School of Government in 1971, but it can not be denied that Europe has done a lot of work in 1963, the United Kingdom set up the Institute of Medical Ethics and the Institute of Medical Ethics (Note: Most of the United Kingdom, not to say morality, ethics), which he founded in 1975 He founded the Wall Street Journal of Medical Ethics (Journal of Medical Ethics) in 1975, and the Medical Ethics Bulletin (Ethics Bulletin) in 1985. The development of a philosophical critique of medical ethics in Germany, the former Soviet Union, and the Catholic tradition of medical ethics in the countries of southern Europe itself Catholic moral theology, gradually adapted to the development of new technologies, transforming the concept of medical practice, unrelated to science. Bioethics developed slowly and gradually in Asia and Africa from the 1990s to the 1980s, promoting the development of socialist schools of ethics in some socialist countries also developed
It should be pointed out that every government is bound to human life and health policy and related regulations, macro-regulation in the field of bioethical issues, which is not a problem for the development of bioethical issues in the west, but it is the only global issue. But it is only a global problem, but at the same time, certain types of bioethical issues in developed countries does not mean that developing countries will be the same problem
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Three general bioethics as a discipline in the core issues: what I should do, what kind of people are to live moral lives and morally right decisions, what are my actions that affect the state and health of others, what are my responsibilities and duties, and what should I do for the public **** interest as a member of society? The first question, virtue, is it worth it not? The goal should be to emphasize human behavior and achievements, the second question, awareness that one's actions may lead to others to have an impact and try to understand the relationship between our people - what we should do to others and what we should expect from others; the third question, our social relations go one step further and see the interdependence between people.
Bioethical premises: respect for autonomy, the interests of the majority, utilitarian social justice; the four principles, case studies, virtue ethics; illustrative morality; feminist ethics; bioethical issues of geography and culture
Bioethical studies: the relationship between health services and service personnel; the question of life and death, the interests of the patient, and the interests of others in distributive justice; conceptual issues (the distribution of justice). interests; conceptual issues (i.e., the meaning of the word); ethical issues in the practice of medical sciences - Nuremberg Bioethics, Science and in the face of these issues, technological, social, and environmental ethics, there are two important tasks that need to be clarified: a fact and a value? It should be possible to carve out a clear boundary distinguishing between what is a medical issue and what values (morals) (good medical decision-making decisions by a doctor do not imply good professional conduct); the other task is to develop