Daniel Callahan entered the second edition of "Encyclopedia of Bioethics Bioethics, Medical Ethics and Bioethics" "Ethics is an ancient discipline, represented by a narrow scope, emphasizing only the moral obligations of doctors and the relationship of doctors with patients, but it is still important today, but does not cover enough! all the issues. "The broader field of bioethics, including the life sciences, medicine, biology, environment population and social sciences, medical ethics, includes important aspects of the field of bioethics, while the other parts of the subject, constitutes the bioethics and existential issues. "
Bioethics International Encyclopedia of Ethics discipline of medical ethics.
Different views: medical ethics experience ancient medical ethics learning modern medical ethics (traditional medical ethics) can be seen in our lives sector of medical ethics, the stage of development of morality. Some scholars believe that today's medical ethics has developed to a new stage, the stage of population health, morality, bioethics is seen as a stage of medical ethics report. J. Stuart Horner in the "Encyclopedia of Applied Ethics", this definition is also the case: medical ethics and bioethics are often confused, but the latter is An aspect of the former, but after 30 years, has taken over.
Definition of morality / a>
Thomas Percival of England's "Medical Ethics" was published in 1803, and was the first "medical ethics". From the previous definition of medical ethics, he did not, but the material can be analyzed by his grasp of the concept of medical ethics. Responsibility, he says: "Morality" is "human knowledge" and "broad morality? "synthesis" and "the general system of medical ethics, whether in official behavior or in communication between medical fields, guided by the principles of moderation and honesty." This view was widely accepted in the 19th century. In the 1920s, a professor of pharmacology in the United States, Chancy Leake challenged the above view. Persephone Street "ethics" is not used properly ... It is specialized and used to manage the etiquette, manners, and communication of career members with each other. ... However, true morality and etiquette, he said: etiquette is different, you should understand, from a philosophical point of view, he argued: "A true theory of medical ethics is based on the treatment of the relationship between doctor and patient, doctor and society 1970s, the American medical ethics KD Clouser, the authority on medical ethics, licked the point of view of the understanding of medical ethics, is not fundamentally different, he said. His first edition of the "Encyclopedia of Bioethics: Daily Medical Ethics in general is not essentially different, the same general moral rules, we use the definition of medical ethics: general ethical principles, morality, addressing the practice of health care and the development of medical sciences, medicine and the relationship with the community formed between the sciences, both the ethical branch ( Applied normative ethics), yes medicine. "
At home and abroad in the past overemphasis on morality is an application of normative ethics tend to be easily misunderstood medical ethics medical ethics can only be understood as the application of normative ethics to learn how to use general ethical and moral principles to solve specific problems, not only incorrectly to safeguard the patient's health, but also ignoring the drug itself, on the one hand, medical ethics, the drug's The nature and purpose of the drug, the treatment of the disease, we can see that the drug itself contains an intrinsic moral - the interests of the patient and many ethical issues arising from the development of medical science and technology, on the other hand, the role of medical ethics, obviously, even if it is the result of the success of the "Surgical Orthodox" Prophet of the management of Confucianism, then we know that the principles of medical science, said: "The combination of the two is the ancient Chinese Confucian medicine, the European medieval medical ethics, the concept of medical ethics, is a Christian concept Anglo-American medical ethics of doctors, patients doctor-patient relationship is dominated by mutual trust as a model that can be better viewed as a factor of medical ethics, leading to the principle of autonomy of the European South, is the relationship between model. Simply put, these two factors interact with medical technology and ethics, the development of medical ethics is an important clue. Research object and content of medical ethics
Doctors' professional ethics (morality) is synonymous with the main object of medical ethics research, morality, and learning as the subject of medical ethics. Qiu the relationship between medical ethics and medical morality, track, is the name of the comrades is not the only problem is that there are two differences: medical ethics holocaust of the school content than the general obligation to morality does not have theoretical value, rather than proving what we call ancient medical ethics, science, in fact, there is no systematic discipline of applied ethics, because it is only the study of the morals and norms of the code that the doctor should be followed, the study of the doctor's relationship with the the patient. Medical ethics is a systematic discipline that extends the performance of the core in the relationship between health care, health care and society, the relationship between man and society, between the doctor and the patient, the medical staff.
All of the entire comrades, including six major areas of medical ethics, the relationship between the subject and the object, clinical ethical issues, ethical issues, biotechnology and other high-tech applications, health policy, moral health of modern medical ethics ethics, medical ethics, basic research, bioethics as the stages of the development of medical ethics, which is typically said.
In fact, regardless of the emphasis of the "encyclopedia of applied ethics, medical ethics of the long term, it is not fixed, long term medical ethics and bioethics", its meaning and principles, as well as the management of the medical profession, health care financing, the impact of change and cultural factors, the medical community as a whole,
Historical development of medical ethics, medical ethics, basic research, bioethics as the stage of development of medical ethics, which is typical of what is said. p>
Historical Development of Medical Ethics
The Hippocratic School may have been the earliest medical profession and physicians to regulate behavior, but the idea could have spread a long time ago, mainly because Christianity considered the idea and adherence to them in some ways other than abortion? confidentiality of the patient, whether it was the prevailing thought in the ancient Greek medical community. Many scholars emphasize that the prognosis of the disease, the prognosis of the Hippocratic period could play a role in the security for insurance purposes, the doctor knew what he could and could not do, thus protecting the doctor against treatment failure or refusal of treatment by the accused. Traditional Christianity emphasizes the important role of integrity in overcoming disease, the idea and value that the physician should convene at his own peril to save the patient? s charitable organizations? Responsible for the poor In fact, the early Christians did no more than hospitals This emerging institution believed that the spirit of Judaism and Christianity of fraternity for their sick, the elderly, the poor, and the homeless Although many were responsible for the room and board, medical care, but outside the control of devout Christians medical or scientific Some churches were allowed to look at books and only see some of these writings, the Hippocratic and Galenic Medieval The Black Death took the lives of countless people, doctors had no good treatment, many doctors fled the plague, but many clergy to stay in the city and prayed for the dead, do spiritual comfort the dead, so that those who believe in God, but also glad that the families of the dead.
During the Renaissance, and especially during the scientific revolutions in mechanics, physics, and chemistry, which gained great success, medicine took a firmer step. Harvey's endeavor of kinetic theory, which eventually replaced the Galenic doctrine of blood movement, based on the mechanically dominant concepts of anatomy and physiology of experimental medicine in the 18th century has been guided by the rapid development of the larger advances in pathology in the 18th century before the advent of the 19th century, and the full advancement of surgical techniques, anesthesia, sterilization, it is unlikely that in the late 19th century, surgery has made real progress. In recent experiments doctors have in mind to respect the scientific moral philosophy, medicine is the noblest task than to extend human life, due to a series of new scientific diagnostic and therapeutic, in the doctor's sympathy for the patient, to protect the scientific reality of the treatment of the disease in order to alleviate the patient's suffering is the most basic manifestation of medical humane rescue at the beginning of the 18th century, the norms of the British ethical doctors seldom referred to the Hippocrates, but to be Attention to etiquette, including dress and behavior, of the English gentleman and ladylike manners modern medical derby, doctors should not undermine the colors of Christian charity, it was founded by four men: John Gregory, in 1772 published "Duties and Qualifications for the Office of Lecturer," and Dr. Thomas Giese England's main contribution to a competitive career, mainly because of his Convinced that the desire for wealth is vital, Thomas Beddoes emphasized the legal means to get rid of the application of the rivers and lakes, in 1803 published "Medical Ethics Thomas Percival Street," which initiated the process of preventing and resolving disputes within hospitals in order to the religious overtones of medical ethics, science and secularism have been greatly weakened by Thomas Percival during this century The greatest contribution, in 1847, the American Medical Association's Code of Ethics of the sample
20 the first time the nature of the human being has begun to note that in the rising cost of hospitalization, hospital medical diagnosis and treatment, especially after the end of the Second World War, the land of diagnostic imaging by X-rays has made great advances along with the use of computers such as computed tomography (CT) and nuclear magnetic **** vibration technology in 1972, a lot of money was spent on medical equipment, and around 1960, the first immunosuppressants were introduced, and organ transplants entered a new era, of course, with moral and legal confusion about how to organ transplant when it comes to people. In the 20th century, advances in medical care and medical research increased significantly, but could also lead to more ethical problems, as evidenced in the Nuremberg Code of 1946 and the Declaration of Helsinki (2000 update) of the World Medical Association in 1964, after the end of World War II, and in the medical research literature, involving
Prior to the 20th century, the training of physicians was limited primarily to traditional medical ethics, moral conduct, and clinical practice, and the extension of life span was not a major concern. Clinical practice, prolonging life is not difficult in the new medicine added in the continuum of moral codes, non-physicians developed in the 20th century, in the 1950s, Joseph Fletcher and Paul Ramsey (per capita theologians) wrote a lot of essays that made people begin to look for medicines and medical science and technology in the social and ethical dimensions: firstly previously closed to the TCM philosophers, theologians, lawyers sociologists and psychologists, their unique perspectives on health care beyond these views were favorable to the development of medical science, and people in the medical community also began to accept these external views; thirdly, the scope was expanded to include medical ethics and applied to wider areas of social and ethical issues, such as social and health services, distributive justice, and so on. Thus, in the 1960s, medical ethics guided clinicians in health and illness social and ethical codes and related behaviors began to change, and the United States in the 1970s began to focus on patient autonomy, which is an important change in medical ethics today.
The nature of medical ethics, the interests of the patient, but specifically what is in the patient's interest is consistent with the changing times and changing perceptions of people. Performance of the medical model in general by the past "medical treatment", "treatment of sick people, is not the only goal, to prolong life, in the 1950s, is a good patience, after the end of World War II, to extend the quality of life is very important to the quality of life, the performance of the respect for the patient's wishes.
Bioethics (Bioethics)
The second edition of the "Encyclopedia of Bioethics" explains the term in the first sentence: There is a saying in the "Bible" that there is nothing new under the sun. However, since the rise of bioethics in the 1950s and 1960s, this statement is not true. "Due to the emergence of new technologies and changes in the culture and philosophy of life and death and suffering endured by their right to life, perceived obligations to others and to society, therefore a completely new field - bioethics, which represents a brand-new conceptual shift, which not only opens up a new field (the intersection of ethics and the life sciences), but also represents a change in the academic thinking, the political and social factors on medical biotechnology and the environment. factors on medical biotechnology and the environment. Narrowly speaking, bioethics refers only to new fields that have changed considerably in terms of their scientific and technological orientation; broadly speaking, it has expanded to law, policy, culture, history, disciplines, mass media, philosophy, religion, literature, and other social science disciplines. In a broad sense, says the entry in the Dictionary of Bioethics, this bedside morality of the terminally ill and of individual medical personnel extends to the chaos faced by society as a whole, as citizens and legislators struggle to develop equitable health or environmental policy choices in the face of the public and society's overall interests.
/>Definition of Moral Life
The term bioethics was first used, however, by Wisconsin State University biologist and cancer researcher Valentino Chrysler Porter in 1970, and soon after, by Dutch embryo Washington physiologist and production scientist André Hellegers work, and his work in 1971 Colleagues at the Kennedy School of Human Reproduction and Bioethics, established at Georgetown University, used a different meaning. Combining biological knowledge and knowledge of human value systems, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute of this so-called "new discipline", it is a bridge between medicine and the biomedical sciences, the humanities, and the Middle East, as narrowly defined by André Hellegers and his colleagues, to help human beings survive, maintain, and promote civilization in the world. Applied Research Ethics. Warren Imperial in 1971, ready to write your Encyclopedia of Bioethics", shows that the name, Medical Ethics, Medical Ethics and Encyclopedia of Bioethics initiated two different concepts. The broad western ethics is a traditional recipe, narrow in scope, emphasizing only the moral obligations of doctors and the doctor-patient relationship, it is no longer sufficient to cover all issues. It is claimed that from a broad perspective, bioethics, medicine, biology, environmental sciences, population and social sciences, a wide range of areas in traditional medicine, life sciences, including bioethical and moral issues.
To some extent, the more comprehensive Raanan Kuala Lumpur bioethics dictionary entry. In the "Encyclopedia of Applied Ethics, Raanan Kuala Lumpur Bioethics entry reads: Bioethics is the study of ethical issues in the field of biological practice (including medicine, nursing, including veterinary medicine, including the perspective of other health care professionals, from the point of view of the meaning of the word) in addition to the broader study of bio-sciences discipline, which includes environmental ethics (including the study of pollution of the environment and people and other areas). Environmental ethics (including the relationship between pollution of the environment and people and other areas of animals and nature), the ethics of reproduction, genetics and population research, and the ethics of a wide variety of social, political and moral issues such as unemployment, discrimination, and poverty. Problems such as unemployment, discrimination, poverty, crime, war and persecution, the negative impact on human health, the personnel involved in this discipline is very broad, in addition to doctors, nurses, life scientists, patients, subjects in the academic field of philosophy, moral theology, jurisprudence (tertiary discipline), bioethics, economics, psychology, sociology, anthropology and history of the schools.
Daniel? Report of the Third International Congress of Bioethics on the theme of Weikel - Bioethicists and Social Responsibility: The theme of bioethics has changed, bioethics has gone through three phases, in the fourth phase, the first phase of the process, the birth of the professional code marking behavior, if allowed to do so in medical advertising, prohibiting the denigration of peers, a phase known as his "birth"! In the formation of bioethics, medical ethics stage, the second stage, Jonsen (Albert R. Jonsen) said: historians and his colleagues bioethics stage, in this stage, in ancient times, the profession of the physician fundamentally changed paternalism, and to be honest, the public began to question the right of bioethicists to academic alliance of the patient in this stage. Bioethicists need new ideas and methods, these new ideas and methods, not moral personal behavior, not the traditional ethical principles that define a doctor's career, but as a social and political philosophy, especially the distribution of social justice. The third phase of bioethicists study health care policy and health economics, health officials in many countries in many details, government bioethics? Scientific Advisor Bioethics Bioethics stage is known as the health of the population, which is not the same as the second stage, including professional guidelines for action, health care workers and the public, as the traditional doctor-patient relationship outside the third stage, the whole of the biological and social sciences, the human and management sciences, but also its own characteristics: the emergence of high tech medicine and the emergence of apps is not the central issue, but only one, who can no longer pay attention to the doctor's dilemma reasoning about health, many developing countries *** with suffer from rare health resources and other with focus on a variety of factors, increasingly unequal in American society, many patients existed between the patient's suffering opinions, there are many signals that tell us than the majority of the population's state of health care deteriorates rather than improves, our goal should be a part of a larger public **** health care system, and in order to accomplish this task, we must bring new knowledge to those unfamiliar with areas of knowledge such as public **** health, international health care spending - effectiveness analysis of the volume of the health care system, and many new areas.
Historical Background in Bioethics
Bioethics first arose in the United States, and its unique historical context, in the broader sense of the number of people in bioethics from the 1900's to the development of medical sciences in the twentieth century, a number of health care services, the investment of funds, enjoyment of the services of health care workers and specialists, the complexity of health care delivery systems and see and the level of various aspects Ethical issues arising from the amount of science and technology, it can be traced from three clues: the dominance of hospitals in the development of science and technology and the changing role of medical specialists.
Early in the late 19th century, the number of hospitals in the United States grew at a rapid rate and eventually became the primary source of medical services, equipment, and technology for the provision of diagnostic and therapeutic medical interventions. As the primary medical services provided by hospitals became more efficient, economical, and able to meet the needs of the public under the Hill-Burton Act of 1946, the federal government supported local hospitals, and in the new National Health Insurance tended to reimburse hospitals for providing medical care rather than private clinics or home-based services to U.S. hospitals
Circa 1900 the revolution laid the foundation for medical science has become an integral part of health care reform in medical practice, the education system of the American Medical Association to improve the level of medical care, continued to support the government's medical science, especially in the post-war period II medical education and patient care, research and presentations, in the 1950s the U.S. National Health began to establish and support clinical research
As knowledge of medical science and technology increased, so did the entry of many physicians into a more and more narrow scope, limited to a growing number of specialists for the AA specialty 1917 Ophthalmology Society was founded, which was established in the first half of the twentieth century, the gradual refinement of the social and economic status of the doctors and other roses in essence said that they were well aware of, and so was their attitude towards, the lives and the lives of many patients. life in a way.
Overall, in the 1960s began to appear specialized medical services, promoted in hospitals, dehumanization and health care institutions, and was ignored, social, behavioral, environmental and humane aspects of the disease, overemphasizing the biological and physiological aspects of the disease, and therefore patients complained that the doctor had lost the holistic care of the patient, changed from the close relationship between the previously familiar to the bedside stranger. become strangers at the bedside.
Bioethics may have such a misunderstanding, bioethics can also be understood because of biomedical high technology, which is an important factor, but in fact, bioethics arises as a result of various interactions, factors that influence, in addition to the above medical factors, ethical, cultural, and social movements, involved in the emergence of public ****health issues, also played an unprecedented role in the complexity of the The increased use of medical and humanitarian, urbanization, population growth and the consequent uneven distribution, barriers to access to health services, higher standards of living and increased educational attainment (illness) people's thinking is more complex, significantly increased awareness of self-protection, in the fifties and sixties gave rise to an increased investment by the government in biomedical research on subject protection issues, the ability to hire people has risen dramatically weakened, the ability to purchase insurance, and to purchase health insurance, weakened in the 1930s due to the introduction of basic mechanisms due to the overly technologically-focused health care costs increased significantly, and the majority of Americans still could not get proper health care In addition, by the end of the 1960s the consumer rights movement (the poor food protests of the 1960s) began to influence the health care system, and the patients' rights movement The 1970s were a larger part of the civil rights, women's movement also introduced concerns about caring for female patients, also affecting one's birth control and abortion, as well as family and population policy issues, in the same time cycle the peace movement and the ecology movement lead to a growth in concern as war, environmental and pollution issues caused international health problems, as doctors in nuclear weapons threatened human health, responsibility and social responsibility overall. Health, responsibility, and social responsibility for the overall health and integrity of medical outcomes, these reflections tend to challenge the social and cultural aspects of maintaining the world's population in 1971. Bioethics and biomedical science together constitute a movement that began in the late 1960s and 1980s in the United States during a social and political crisis. Short of that, bioethics as we know it today is rooted in citizens' individual rights, social justice, and environmental quality of care, these were unusual times for American cultural identity.
Heart transplantation in 1967, from a specific event in the second half of the 20th century, the widespread use of kidney dialysis, the success of organ transplantation, but encountered problems with the process of selecting dialysis recipients, leading to the discussion of the criteria for death and Harvard criteria for brain death, the widespread use of ICUs for abortions, the contraceptive pill, prenatal diagnosis, and the widespread use of World War II in biomedicine have been very safe in medicine. Widespread use of artificial respirators, but removal of the Quinlan case, the respirator caused widespread concern and the issue of euthanasia; death at home, a dramatic shift from the traditional concept of death in the hospital has occurred after the application of the research results, several cases have not been informed of the patient's consent in the U.S., to do human experiments caused moral condemnation, publication of Rachel Carson's " Silent Spring," set off a surge of environmental, democratic human rights movements in the United States, the rise of individualism, feminist movements, too. But it is the parallel processing of cultures that is the main reason for keeping up with these changes, and this is why bioethics can lead to so much concern for the public and the historical context
It is beyond doubt that the United States is the leader in the field of bioethics, the most important symbol of which is the founding of the Kennedy School of Government in 1969, which in 1971 was renamed the Hastings Corporation, founded in 1971, and the report of the Kennedy School of Government. of the report, but you can not deny that a great deal of work has been done in Europe, in 1963, the United Kingdom founded the Society of Medical Ethics and the Institute of Medical Ethics (note: the United Kingdom, not to speak of Moral Bioethics), and in 1975 he founded the Journal of Medical Ethics (Journal of Medical Ethics) the former USSR and the Catholic Church in southern Europe. Traditional Medical Ethics, Medical Ethics Bulletin (Moral Bulletin) was founded in 1985, developed in Germany as a philosophical critique of medical ethics, on the state itself as a Catholic moral theology, after gradually adapting to the development of new technologies and transforming the conception of the practice of medicine as having nothing to do with science. Bioethics developed slowly and gradually in Asia and Africa in the 1990s and 1980s, and the promotion of socialist morality in some socialist countries has also been developed in schools
It should be noted that every national government, by necessity, develops a human life and health policy and related regulations, and macro-regulation in the field of bioethical issues, which is not problematic, and it is unique to the West, but rather a global problem, but at the same time, the fact that certain types of bioethical issues occur in developed countries does not mean that developing countries will have the same problems.
BR /> Theoretical Issues in Bioethics
/> Third, universal bioethics as a discipline in the core issues: what I should do, what is the right kind of person to lead an ethical life and ethical decisions, what are my actions that affect the state and health of other people, what are my duties and duties, what is my public **** interest in doing as a member of society? Your first question, virtue, its value goal should be to emphasize human behavior and achievement; the second question, recognizing that a person's actions may cause a person to have an impact and try to understand our relationships - what we should do and what we should expect from others; the third question, our social relationships go a step deeper and see the interdependence of human beings.
Prerequisites of bioethics: respect for autonomy, the interests of the general public, utilitarian social justice; the four principles, case studies, virtue ethics; moral descriptions of feminist ethics; issues of bioethics in regional cultures
Conceptual Aspects of Bioethics: relationships between health care and providers; issues of life and death; distributive justice; patient's interests and the interests of others (i.e., the term...). interests and the interests of others (i.e. the meaning of the word); ethical issues in the practice of medical sciences - Nuremberg to promote bioethics among scientific, technological, social, environmental ethics, in the face of these issues, there are two important tasks that need to be clarified by the fact that with its values should be carved out a clear boundary, to disentangle what is a medical issue and what kind of values? (Ethics) (the decision of a good doctor's medical decision does not imply good professional conduct); the other task is to develop