Section I. Overview of International Trade in Services
I. The Concept of Trade in Services
While services have been a traditional industrial sector for thousands of years, the concept of trade in services is not a very remote matter compared with that of the ancient trade in goods. The International Monetary Fund (IMF) The International Monetary Fund (IMF) has always included trade in services in the column of invisible trade in the balance of payments statistics of various countries, and this situation was not adjusted until 1993, while China has always called trade in services as trade in labor services in the past. Prior to the launching of the Uruguay Round of multilateral trade negotiations in September 1986, trade in services had been practiced only to a limited extent in the developed countries and had not attracted much attention as a general issue in international trade.
According to the literature, the concept of "trade in services" first appeared in September 1972 in the Senior Experts' Report on Trade and Related Issues of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). In 1974, the United States used the concept of "world trade in services" for the first time in Section 301 of the Trade Act of 1974, which was the first time that the United States had used the concept of "world trade in services" in the context of the Uruguay Round of Multilateral Trade Negotiations launched in September 1972, but it was not until then that the concept of "world trade in services" came into use.
At present, due to the definition of services is inherently complex, in addition to different countries and researchers from their respective positions have different perspectives, so on the international trade in services, national statistics and various economic and trade literature does not have a unified, recognized, precise definition. Here are some representative definitions:
1, UNCTAD's definition
The United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) is the standing body of the United Nations dealing with trade and development issues. It approaches international trade in services from the perspective of transit. It defines international trade in services as the processing, assembly and repair of goods, as well as the provision of services to non-residents by factors of production such as money, personnel and information, and the receipt of income from these activities, and the exchange of services between one country and another.
International trade in services in the narrower sense is intangible and refers to the direct export and import of services that take place between countries in accordance with the strict definition of services.
In the broader sense, international trade in services includes both the export and import of tangible labor and intangible transactions between suppliers and users without physical contact, such as satellite transmission and dissemination, trade in patented technologies, etc.
In general, international trade in services is intangible, and refers to direct services export and import activities between countries that meet the strict definition of services.
Generally people refer to trade in services are the concept of international trade in services in a broad sense.
Narrow vs. broad
2, USCFTA definition
International trade in services means the supply of a specified service by a person acting on behalf of another contracting party, either within its territory or into a contracting party.
The term "designated service" in this context includes (1) the production, distribution, sale, marketing and transmission of a designated service and its procurement; (2) access to, or use of, domestic distribution systems; (3) the establishment of a commercial presence for the purpose of distributing, marketing, transmitting, or promoting a designated service; and (4) any investment for the provision of a designated service and any related activity for the provision of a designated service, in conformity with investment regulations. any related activity for the purpose of providing a designated service...". A "person" can be either a legal or natural person.
3, Definition of the Uruguay Round General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS)
The Uruguay Round negotiations led to the signing of the GAST in April 1994, which defines trade in services in Article I.2 as the supply of services in the following four forms:
1. cross-border supply: the supply of services from the territory of one member to any other member;
2. the supply of services from the territory of a member to any other member;
3, definition of "a person" as a legal person or a natural person. Cross-border supply: the provision of services from the territory of one member to any other member; (such services do not constitute the movement of persons, materials or funds, but are realized through telecommunications, postal and telecommunication networks, computer networks, such as audio-visual, financial information, etc.)
This mode of service delivery places special emphasis on the geographical boundaries between buyers and sellers, and it is only the service itself that crosses the borders of the country and the border, and not the service provider or the recipient.
2. Consumption abroad: the provision of services in the territory of a member to any other member of the consumer of services; (such as the reception of foreign tourists, the provision of tourism services, the provision of medical services for foreign patients)
The main feature of this mode of service provision is that consumers go abroad to enjoy the services provided by the service provider.
3. Commercial Presence: a member of the service provider in the territory of any other member of the provision of services through commercial presence; (refers to allow a country's enterprises and economic entities to another country to set up, provide services, including investment in the establishment of joint ventures, cooperation and sole proprietorships. For example, foreign companies come to China to open banks, stores, set up accounting, law firms, etc.).
This mode of service provision is characterized by: service providers and consumers in the territory of the same member; service providers to the territory of the consumer's country to take the establishment of commercial or professional institutions. Commercial presence is the most important of the four modes of service provision.
4. Presence of Natural Persons: Services provided by a service provider of one member through the presence of natural persons in the territory of any other member. (e.g. a doctor, professor, artist from one country traveling to another country to perform individual services).
Mobility of natural persons is similar to commercial presence in that the service provider goes to the territory of the State where the consumer is located to provide the service; it is different in that the service is provided by mobility of natural persons, and the service provider does not have a commercial or professional establishment in the territory of the State where the consumer is located.
II. Classification of international trade in services
(I) Civilian classification
1, "mobile" as a criterion
2, the production process as a criterion
3, to the factor intensity as a criterion
4, to the commodity as a criterion
(II) WTO classification
(C) IMF Classification
(I) Civilian classification
1. "Mobile" as the standard
___ R. M. Tern in 1987 in the book "International Trade", the international trade in services according to whether the services in the movement between the provider and the user is divided into four categories:
(1) Separated services (separated services). services). Refers to the service provider and user of services between countries do not need to move and realize the service. Transportation services are typical examples of separated services. For example, in the case of civil air transportation services, a U.S. airline can provide services to residents of China, but it is not necessary to move the U.S. airline to China, nor is it necessary to require Chinese customers to travel to the U.S., where the airline is located, to receive the service.
The first type of service delivery, "cross-border delivery," as defined in GAST, is similar to this type of service.
(2) Demander-located services. It refers to the transfer of the provider of services resulting from the service, generally requires the provider of services and service users in geographic proximity, proximity. Banking, financial and insurance services are typical examples of such services. For example, in order for a British bank to capture market share in Japan's micro-banking business, it must open a branch in Japan, which requires the movement of capital and labor between countries. The third mode of service provision, "commercial presence", as defined in GATS, is similar to this type of service.
(3) Supplier-located services (SLS). It refers to the services provided by the service provider within the country for foreign residents and legal persons, and generally requires the consumer of the service to receive the service across national borders. International tourism, education abroad and foreign medical care belong to this type of trade in services. For example, foreign tourists visiting the Great Wall of China, Guilin, etc. receive Chinese travel services. In this case, the service provider does not export the service across national borders to the service consumer, and there is no movement of factors of production for the service provider. The second type of "consumption abroad" defined in GATS is similar to this type of service.
(4) Footloose non-separated services. Also called "mobile services". It refers to the consumer and producer of services to move each other received and provided services, service providers to foreign direct investment, and the use of branch offices to provide services to residents or enterprises in third countries. For example, an American travel company based in Italy provides services to German tourists in Italy. Mobile services require varying degrees of movement of factors of production, such as capital and labor, between the consumer and the provider of the service. Some of the services in the third category of "commercial presence" and the fourth category of "movement of natural persons" as defined in GATS fall into this category.
The essence of this classification involves the movement of factors of production, such as capital and labor, between countries. Since such cross-border movement of factors of production often involves limitations in the domestic or regional legislation of each country, as well as the right to practise in the country of demand, this classification is more appropriate for the study of such problems. However, there are shortcomings that make it difficult to classify trade in services accurately and thoroughly, for example, it is difficult to classify tourism services that are provided by countries practicing in each other's business.
2. Production process as a criterion
This classification is based on the intrinsic link between services and production process, trade in services is divided into three categories:
(1) Pre-production services. Mainly related to market research and feasibility studies. This kind of services in the production process before the beginning of the completion of the scale of production and manufacturing process have an important impact.
(2) Production services. Mainly refers to the production of products or manufacturing process for the smooth running of the production process to provide services. Such as quality management within the enterprise, software development, human resource management, various services between the production process.
(3) post-production services. This service is the link between producers and consumers. Such as advertising, marketing services, packaging and transportation services. Through this service, the enterprise and the market contact, easy to study whether the product is marketable, whether the design needs to be improved, whether the packaging to meet the needs of consumers and so on.
This "production" as the core of the division of international trade in services, the essence of which involves the application of high and new technology to improve productivity, and product producers to carry out pre-production and post-production services to provide an important basis for coordination. This enables producers to respond quickly to changes in the international market, in order to improve production processes, new designs or introduce new services, and ultimately produce products or services for consumer satisfaction.
3. Factor intensity as the standard
Inherited in the commodity trade in the intensive use of certain factors of production characteristics, some economists in accordance with the trade in services on the capital, technology, labor investment requirements of the degree of intensity of trade in services will be divided into:
(1) capital-intensive services. Such services include air transportation, communications, engineering and construction services.
(2) technology- and knowledge-intensive services. These services include banking, finance, legal, accounting, auditing, information services, etc.
(3) Labor-intensive services. These services include tourism, construction, maintenance, consumer services and so on.
This classification is centered on the intensity of factors of production, and involves the development and application of factors of production in the competition for products or services, especially contemporary high-tech issues.
4. Commodity-based criteria
During the Uruguay Round of GATT negotiations on trade in services, the Negotiating Group in June 1988 proposed a classification of trade in services based on the attributes of services in commodities, according to which trade in services is categorized as follows:
(1) Services in the form of commodities. This type of services in the form of goods or physical form. Such as movies, television, audio, books, computers and specialized data processing and transmission devices.
(2) complementary services to the physical goods. This type of service to the realization of the value of goods with complementary, auxiliary function . Such as commodity storage and transportation, financial management, advertising and publicity belong to this type of service.
(3) on the physical form of goods has the function of alternative services. This kind of service accompanied by the movement of tangible goods, but not the general merchandise trade, unlike commodity trade to realize the transfer of ownership of goods, only to provide services to consumers of services. Such as technology trade commonly used in franchising, equipment leasing and equipment maintenance.
(4) with the attributes of goods but not related to other goods services. This type of service has commodity attributes, its sales do not need to be supplemented by other goods in order to achieve. For example, communications, data processing, tourism, hotel and restaurant services.
This classification of services and commodities to analyze, in fact, it is from the theoretical recognition of "services" and "commodities" as well as the existence of use value, there is value, and commodities as well as the progress of the social productive forces can contribute to. The particularity of services lies in its "intangibility" which is different from that of commodities, but this "intangibility" can also be manifested in the form of commodities under certain circumstances.
(II) WTO Classification
The Uruguay Round Negotiating Group on Trade in Services, on the basis of the classification of trade in services centered on commodities, combined with the requirements of trade in services statistics and the opening up of trade in services sectors, and on the basis of consulting the negotiating parties for their proposals and opinions, put forward the classification of trade in services centered on sectors, and classified the trade in services into 12 major categories. They are as follows:
1,Commercial services . Refers to the exchange of services involved in commercial activities, the Negotiating Group on Trade in Services lists six categories of such services, which include both services consumed by individuals and services consumed by businesses and governments. These are professional (including consulting) services, computer and related services, research and development services, real estate services, equipment rental services and other services.
2, communication services. Mainly refers to all services related to information products, operations, storage equipment and software functions. Mainly includes postal services, courier services, telecommunications services, audio-visual services and other telecommunications services.
3, construction services. Mainly refers to engineering construction from design, site selection to the construction of the entire service process. Specifically include: site selection services, related to the location of the building; domestic engineering construction projects, such as bridges, ports, highways and other address selection, etc.; building installation and assembly works; construction projects construction; fixed building maintenance services; other services.
4. sales services. Refers to the exchange of services in the process of product sales. Mainly includes: commercial sales, mainly refers to the wholesale business; retail services; sales-related agency fees and commissions, etc.; franchise services; other sales services.
5. Educational services. Refers to the service exchanges between countries in higher education, secondary education, primary education, pre-school education, continuing education, special education and other education. For example, mutual exchange of students, visiting scholars and so on.
6. Environmental services. This refers to sewage services, waste disposal services, sanitation and similar services.
7. Financial services
Mainly refers to the banking and insurance industry and related financial services activities.
8. Health and Social Services
___ Mainly refers to medical services, other services related to human health, social services, etc.
9.
9. Tourism and related services
___ Refers to lodging, food and beverage services, catering services and related services provided by hotels and restaurants; travel agencies and tour guide services.
10. Cultural, Entertainment and Sports Services
___ Refers to all cultural, entertainment, news, library and sports services, such as cultural exchanges, cultural performances, etc., excluding radio, film and television.
11. Transportation services
___ Mainly includes: cargo transportation services, such as air transport, ocean transport, rail transport, pipeline transport, inland waterways and coastal transport, road transport services, but also includes space launches as well as transportation services, such as satellite launches, etc.; passenger services; shipping services (including crew employment); services attached to transportation, mainly refers to customs clearance, cargo handling, cargo handling, customs clearance, customs clearance, customs clearance, customs clearance and other services. Cargo handling, warehousing, port services, pre-departure inspection services, and so on.
12. Other services
(3) IMF classification
___ The International Monetary Fund in accordance with the balance of payments statistics will be divided into trade in services:
1. private services (or commercial services): refers to the 1977 International Monetary Fund compiled by the "Balance of Payments Manual" of the freight transport; other transportation, passenger transport, port services, etc. Tourism; other private services and income;
2. Investment income:_ refers to receipts and expenditures arising from the remittance or repatriation of interest, dividends, and profits from the lending, borrowing, or investment of capital between countries.
3. Other government services and revenues
refers to government-related services and revenues not included in the above
___4. Non-repayable transfers
___ Refers to receipts and expenditures which, because they are unilateral (or one-sided) and not reciprocal, imply that the funds, when moved internationally, do not give rise to the question of their restitution or repayment. Thus, it is also called unilateral transfer.
Three, the characteristics of trade in services
Because of the existence of some unique characteristics of the service itself, resulting in the international trade in services also presents with the international trade in goods different characteristics. Compared with trade in goods, trade in services has the following obvious characteristics:
1, the subject matter of trade in services is intangible, untouchable, non-storable and not easy to transport, which leads to the diversification of the mode of export of services;
2, the production and consumption of services are often simultaneous, and usually can not be reproduced and arbitrage services, so the service production and export process is, to some extent, the same as in the case of international trade in goods, but also in the case of international trade in services. The production and export process is also the import and consumption process of services to a certain extent;
3, trade in services depends more on the international movement of factors of production and the transnational setup of service institutions, regardless of the form of trade in services, it is closely related to the transnational movement of factors of production, such as capital, labor, and information;
4, the statistical data of trade in services is the same as that of trade in goods, in the balance of payments of countries, the trade in services is the same as that of goods. However, the statistics of trade in services cannot be shown in the customs import and export statistics of each country as in the case of trade in goods.
5, the monitoring of trade in services can only be achieved through national legislation and the enactment of administrative regulations to achieve the purpose, so it involves the form and intensity of regulations are far more than trade in goods.
Section II: The development of international trade in services
I, the development of international trade in services after the Second World War
1, trade in services as a subsidiary status of trade in goods stage (before the 1970s)
This period, the countries of the world have not yet realized that the existence of trade in services as an independent entity, in the actual economic and trade activities, trade in services. Basically, trade in goods in the form of subsidiary. Such as: warehousing, transportation, insurance and other services. Therefore, at that time, despite the fact that the existence of trade in services, but it is independent of people's consciousness, so there is a lack of specific quantitative statistics on trade in services.
2, the rapid growth of trade in services stage (1970-1994)
This period, trade in services from the subsidiary status of trade in goods gradually began to stand alone, and get rapid development. According to the International Monetary Fund statistics, from 1970-1980 years, the average annual growth rate of international trade in services is 17.8%, and the same period the growth rate of trade in goods is more or less the same. 80's, trade in services began to exceed the growth rate of trade in goods. 1980-1990 years, the average annual growth rate of international trade in services is 5.02%, while the same period the average annual growth rate of trade in goods is only 3.69%, the average annual growth rate of trade in goods is only 3.69%, the average annual growth rate of trade in services is only 3.69%, the average annual growth rate of trade in goods is only 3.69%. 3.69%, this momentum continued until 1993.
3, trade in services in the standardization of the liberalization of the development stage (since 1994 to the present)
April 1994, regulating trade in services of the multilateral framework system of the General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS) was signed, the development of trade in services has entered a new historical period. However, there have been some repetitions in the high speed development of trade in services. In 1994-1995, the growth rate of trade in services was 8.03% and 13.76% respectively, which was lower than the growth rate of trade in goods in the same period. However, since 1996, trade in services and trade in goods have been growing at an almost synchronized rate and slightly higher than the growth rate of trade in goods.
Second, the main features of the development of international trade in services after the Second World War
1, the rapid development of international trade in services
Since the 1970s, the rapid development of international trade in services, the scale of the continuous expansion of the trend of this rapid development has been continued to the present. According to the World Trade Organization statistics, in 1970 the world trade in services amounted to 64 billion U.S. dollars, 383 billion U.S. dollars in 1980, an increase of five times; 849 billion U.S. dollars in 1990, more than doubled; 1992 for the first time exceeded one trillion U.S. dollars; reached 1435.4 billion U.S. dollars in 2000; reached 2.1 trillion U.S. dollars in 2004. The share of trade in services in international trade as a whole was about one fifth in the 1970s and 1980s, and increased to one quarter in the 1990s. In the next 20-30 years, the proportion of trade in services in international trade as a whole will increase by about one percentage point a year, and it is expected that by the 21st century and 30s, the proportion of trade in services will be roughly equal to the proportion of trade in goods, or even more than the proportion of trade in goods, and will become the main object and the main content of international trade. This is the primary feature of the development of contemporary international trade in services.
2, trade in services regional development imbalance
The pattern of international trade in services with the economy, the development of science and technology continues to change. The unbalanced nature of the world economy determines the unbalanced nature of trade in services. The United States is now the world's largest services trading country. From an individual country point of view, since 1981, the United States of America's service trade exports to replace France jumped to the top of the world, and has been maintained so far. 2002, the United States of America's service trade exports amounted to 272.6 billion U.S. dollars, accounting for the world's total exports of trade in services of 17.4%, trade in services imports amounted to 205.6 billion U.S. dollars, accounting for the world's total imports of trade in services of 13.3%.
By type of country, the big countries in trade in services are all developed countries, and almost all of the top 10 exports are developed countries (China's trade in services amounted to 128.6 billion U.S. dollars in 2004, ranking 9th in the world.)