Watson tried to create an objective psychology. He believes that the essence of psychology is behavior and the research object of psychology should be observable behavior. The so-called behavior refers to all activities (including thinking activities) of organisms in response to the environment, and the basic unit of behavior is response, including learned response and non-learned response. The former refers to all habits and conditioned reflex; The latter refers to all reactions except habit and conditioned reflex, such as breathing, pupil contraction, nervous system activity, grasping and sucking in infancy, etc. The former is developed on the basis of the latter.
Second, Watson's concept of children's psychological development
Watson's animal learning research was inspired by the famous physiologist Pavlov (иппавлов). Pavlov believes that dogs will instinctively salivate when they get food, but he noticed that his dog began to salivate before he tasted any food, that is, when he met the feeding trainer. In this regard, Pavlov's analysis believes that dogs must have learned to establish a connection between one stimulus (trainer) and another stimulus (thing) before they will have a reflex reaction (salivation). Because of this connection, the stimulus itself will cause this reaction. In order to test this idea, Pavlov successfully trained dogs to start drooling when they heard the delivery bell ring, and he discovered the "classical conditioned reflex".
Watson introduced conditioned reflex from physiology to psychology and made it the cornerstone of his theory. He calls anything that can trigger an individual response a stimulus. Watson asserts that all psychological problems and their solutions can be accommodated in the norms of stimulation and response. The occurrence and change of all behaviors can be explained by the formula S (stimulus) -R (response). The most basic S-R connection is "reflection". In the final analysis, any behavior is an organic combination of one or more reflections. Response can be predicted by stimulus, and stimulus can be inferred by response. Then, if children want to learn the expected behavior, they only need to control the stimulus to produce corresponding responses and make them habituated, so as to achieve the purpose of shaping behavior. Therefore, development is a process of gradually establishing and complicating children's behavior patterns and habits, so it will not show stages.
Watson believes that no matter how complex the behavior is, it can be established through conditioned reflex, in other words, it can be predicted and controlled through learning. The result of learning is to form a habit. Habit in Watson's eyes is a series of regular and orderly conditioned reflex. Vision, hearing, smell and touch play an important role in the process of habit formation, but with the acquisition and consolidation of habits, their roles become less and less important. Because the previous action can be used as a kinesthetic stimulus to trigger the next action.
Watson denies the role of heredity in human life development, and thinks that environment and education play a decisive role in shaping children's behavior. Watson also admitted that people are born with structural differences, but he also stated that structural inheritance does not prove functional inheritance. For example, the son of a basketball player may have inherited his father's height, but it cannot be proved that he has inherited his father's athletic ability. This son may become a basketball player in the future, but this is mainly due to the influence of the environment and the training the day after tomorrow. Based on this, Watson put forward the famous "omnipotence of education". Because behaviorists denied the role of psychological process inside the body and unilaterally emphasized the role of environment, they were also criticized, so the new behaviorist school developed. Neo-behaviorism began to pay attention to the intermediary of psychological internal process and put forward S-O-R formula. Skinner was an outstanding representative of Neo-behaviorism. Based on his own research, he put forward the theory of operant conditioning.
Strengthening the theory of children's behavior control
1. Strengthening effect
Skinner believes that reinforcement is the basis of shaping behavior. The child accidentally made an action strengthened by the educator, and the probability of this action appearing later will be greater than that of the action without strengthening. With the increase of strengthening times or intensity, the probability also increases, which leads to the establishment of human operation behavior. If an action is not reinforced in time after it happens, the effect of reinforcement is not obvious, or even ineffective. If the child's behavior is not strengthened in the process of behavior development, the behavior will fade. Therefore, children's bad behaviors, such as unreasonable troubles and crying for a long time, cannot be strengthened when these behaviors occur, so that they gradually disappear. We should strengthen and consolidate children's good behavior.
Reinforcement is divided into positive reinforcement and negative reinforcement. The so-called positive reinforcement is due to the increase of a stimulus and the enhancement of the probability of an operational behavior. The so-called negative reinforcement means that the probability of an operation behavior is enhanced by excluding several stimuli. Whether it is positive reinforcement or negative reinforcement, the result is the probability of enhancing the reaction. In practical education, many reinforcement methods are often used. For example, a child who doesn't like to wash his hands always uses various excuses to avoid washing his hands. To correct this bad behavior, we should use both positive reinforcement and negative reinforcement. Praise children immediately after washing their hands and allow them to watch cartoons, which is positive reinforcement; If children insist on not washing their hands and not watching cartoons, it is negative reinforcement. The purpose of both kinds of reinforcement is to promote children to develop the habit of hygiene.
It should be pointed out that negative reinforcement is different from punishment. Negative reinforcement is strengthening behavior, encouraging behavior, and punishment is trying to eliminate behavior with different purposes. Sometimes, the reaction will be temporarily suppressed after punishment, but it will not lead to the reduction of the total number of reactions in the regression process. Therefore, Skinner suggested using regression instead of punishment, and advocated playing a positive role in strengthening.
In short, in Skinner's view, as long as we understand the reinforcement effect and manipulate the reinforcement technology well, we can control the behavioral response and shape the behavior of a child expected by educators.
2. Actual control of children's behavior
(1) Function of incubator
When Skinner's first child was born, he decided to make a new and improved cradle, which was Skinner's incubator. Its principle is "Skinner box". His daughter grew up in an experimental box and soon became a famous painter. Therefore, Skinner introduced it to the American magazine Women's Family in detail, and his research work was generally concerned and praised by the public for the first time. In his paper "Baby in a Box" (1945), he described that the light can directly shine into the box through the wide glass window, and the box is dry; Automatic temperature adjustment, aseptic, non-toxic and sound insulation; There is a wide range of activities in it. There is no extra cloth except diapers, and children can sleep and play in it. The box wall is safe, hanging toys and other irritants; Don't worry about colds and eczema. This mechanical baby care device is another masterpiece of Skinner's research on operant conditioning. The idea of this design is to avoid all bad external stimuli as much as possible, create a behavioral environment suitable for children's development, and raise children with physical and mental health.
(2) Behavior shaping and correction
Skinner believes that most human behaviors are operable, and any learned behavior is related to timely reinforcement. So reinforcement can be used to shape children's behavior. However, the acquisition of operational behavior needs a process. In this process, educators should take positive and step-by-step reinforcement to children in order to cultivate their good behavior habits.
For abnormal people, Skinner also uses behavior correction method according to reinforcement theory. Many times, the process of shaping and correcting behavior is integrated. When correcting bad behavior, shape good behavior; While adopting positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement and even punishment are adopted.
(3) Program teaching
Skinner applied his reinforced control theory to teaching, adopting the method of machine teaching or program teaching. This is to compile the learning content into a set of programs and provide them to children step by step. Give feedback and tell your children that they are right. Take intensive measures to let children master knowledge. Skinner advocates that three principles should be grasped in procedural education: ① small steps forward; ② Active participation; ③ Timely feedback. (A) the concept of observational learning
Bandura defines observational learning as: "By observing other people's behaviors and their reinforcement results, one obtains some new responses or corrects the existing response characteristics. In this process, the observer did not have a clear demonstration reaction. " In short, it refers to the process that people acquire new behaviors by observing the behaviors of others (role models) and their results.
In the process of observation and learning, learners don't have to react directly, and they don't need to experience reinforcement personally. They can learn by observing the behavior of role models in a certain environment and accepting certain reinforcement. In other words, learners are reinforced by the reinforcement of example acceptance. Bandura called the influence of this reinforcement on learners "vicarious reinforcement". For example, when children see that their peers are praised for being polite, they will increase their tendency to have the same behavior; When he sees that his partner is punished for swearing, he will restrain his impulse to swear.
(B) Observe the learning process
Bandura believes that the acquisition process of new behavior is a complex cognitive process, including four specific processes: attention, retention, motor repetition and motivation.
Attention process is the whole process of people observing role models, and it is the beginning of observation and learning process, which involves the characteristics of observers' attention, cognition and discrimination response to role models. To imitate an example, we must first pay attention to the behavior of this example. Therefore, the process of attention is very important in observation learning, which affects the occurrence and content of observation learning and the effect of observation learning.
The retention process means that if the observer wants to imitate the behavior of the character model successfully, he must keep the previously observed information in his mind. This information can be visual representation or language symbols. Visual representation refers to the image of the observed thing in the mind when it is not in front of you. Children under 5 years old mainly rely on visual appearances to maintain their observed behaviors. Observing the actions of role models and giving verbal hints, such as talking about the essentials of actions while doing exercises, will greatly improve the imitation effect of children.
The process of sports reappearance refers to the fact that children need to turn the information stored in their minds into concrete behaviors after observing and maintaining the exemplary behaviors, and show them in real life or games. To reproduce behavior, we must have the ability to reproduce behavior. For example, one can remember all the details of a wonderful dunk by Jordan, but still can't reproduce that action. It is only possible if he has the basketball ability equivalent to Jordan. The reproduction of behavior is often not in place once, and the initial attempt may fail. After repeated practice and constant adjustment, children's grasp of behavior or action will become more and more accurate.
The process of motivation is the process of inducing the observer to show the new behavior of the example he will get. People get the new behaviors of role models, but they don't necessarily show them immediately and can operate them. Whether people will operate the new behavior of the obtained paradigm mainly depends on the motivation caused by reinforcement.
(3) Types of reinforcement.
There are three kinds of reinforcement: direct reinforcement, vicarious reinforcement and self-reinforcement.
Direct reinforcement refers to the direct interference of the observer's behavior by external factors. For example, a kindergarten child did a good deed, and the teacher gave him a small red flower to encourage the child to do good deeds.
Vicarious reinforcement is an unreinforced observer. In the process of observation and study, he saw that the behavior of role models was strengthened. This reinforcement will also affect the tendency of the observer's behavior. For example, when children see that the aggressive behavior of role models is rewarded, they tend to imitate this behavior; When you see that example aggression is punished, you can restrain it.
Self-reinforcement refers to the observer's evaluation of his behavior according to his own standards, thus playing a self-regulating role in example demonstration and behavior. In the process of development, children acquire the standard and ability of self-evaluation through observation and learning. When he thinks that his role model's behavior meets the standard, he will give a positive evaluation, and when he does not meet the standard, he will give a negative evaluation and let the children adjust their behavior. It is in this self-regulation that children change their behavior and form their own ideas and personality.
The embodiment of observation learning in the process of socialization
The process of socialization is a process in which children learn social norms, act according to social norms and become recognized members of society. In social learning, society guides its members to engage in activities in a socially recognized way. Bandura attaches great importance to the role of social learning in children's socialization.
(1) aggressiveness. Bandura once did a famous experiment: 66 kindergarten children were divided into three groups, and they were allowed to watch demonstrators attack a doll. Reward group: another person praised the aggressive behavior of the demonstrators. (2) Punishment group: another person condemned the demonstrators' attacks. ③ Non-reinforcement group: Only the demonstrator showed aggressive behavior. Then let three groups of children play 10 minutes in the same situation. The experimenter observed and recorded children's behavior through one-way glass, and found that the aggressive behavior of children in reward group and non-reinforcement group was much higher than that of children in punishment group. It can be seen that the role model still has a high level of automatic imitation reaction without reinforcement.
Then, tell the children that if they imitate the behavior of the demonstrator, they will be rewarded, and then record their performance. It turns out that the three groups are all about the same aggression. It shows that the acquisition of imitation response is not affected by whether the presenter strengthens it or not. The children in the punishment group did not show aggressive behavior without motivation, but showed aggressive behavior with motivation. This shows that the children in the punishment group obtained aggressive behavior through observation and study, but did not show it; Substitution punishment only prevents the operation of new behavior, but does not prevent the acquisition of new behavior. Whether and when aggressive behavior is manifested depends on children's expectation of the consequences of behavior, and cognitive process plays an important role.
Bandura believes that aggressive socialization is a state of operation. Adults will praise and reward children when they show aggression in socially permitted ways, such as competitive sports and self-defense. When the offensive behavior is manifested in a way that society does not allow, such as fighting, swearing, destroying property, etc. Adults stop and punish children. This will enhance children's motivation and frequency of imitating positive reinforcement behavior.
(2) Prosocial behavior. Prosocial behavior refers to altruistic behaviors such as sharing, cooperation and helping. Bandura believes that the methods of training and reprimanding have little effect on children's prosocial behavior. Mandatory orders may work for a while, but the effect is hard to last. Only positive role models can play a lasting and powerful role in promoting children's prosocial behavior.
In addition, Bandura also studied gender roles and self-reinforcement. Bandura believes that the acquisition of gender roles of boys and girls is also achieved through learning in the process of socialization, especially imitation. It is found that children tend to imitate the behavior of same-sex adults.
The relationship between people, environment and behavior
Human personality is formed under the interaction of behavior, internal cognitive factors and environment. The emergence of a person's behavior depends first on his observation of environmental cases, but also on his own understanding of observed cases, and on the internal motivation of human activities. Behavior, personal cognitive factors and environment play a role in the process of mutual influence, showing a triangular pattern. The influence of the environment is only a potential reality, and whether it plays a role depends on people's subjective conditions and behaviors. Bandura believes that in the process of interaction between man and environment, there are both opportunities for human beings to influence their own destiny and restrictions on this self-orientation. People are not only influenced by the environment, but also can act on the environment and actively influence the environment. People can transcend reality and predict the future through the function of symbols.
People's cognition plays an important role in their interaction. Because people have cognitive ability, the self-regulation system can selectively accept environmental information, selectively respond to this information, and constantly form and change the internal cognitive structure, and constantly form adult personality differences. Therefore, a person can respond to this kind of activity, or inhibit the operation of this kind of activity; On the same occasion, one person can do this and another person can do that.
Behavior, personal cognitive factors and environmental interaction theory are the basic starting points of Bandura's social learning theory, and the formation of human personality is determined by these three factors. At the end of 1960s, there was a "cognitive revolution" in the field of psychology, and behaviorism gradually faded out of the dominant position of psychology. Bandura's theory came into being in this period, which has brought great influence on developmental psychology, personality psychology and even the clinical treatment of psychological disorders.
Bandura believes that the behavior of individuals (especially children) is obtained through observation and learning. The objects of observation come from the surrounding environment, others and various media. Observational learning is closer to children's real learning process. Bandura believes that human personality is formed by imitating the behavior of role models in the process of observation and learning. He attaches great importance to the role of example, which is of great significance to the practical educators who cultivate children's good personality. To set a good example for children's physical and mental development, the example must be positive and conform to social ethics; The role model must be representative and conform to the age characteristics of children; The role model must be typical, distinctive and outstanding; The example must be vivid and infectious; An example must be authoritative and easy to accept.
However, some theorists believe that Bandura's theory completely ignores the biological state of individuals and denies the individual differences caused by genetic, intellectual and knowledge differences.
Bandura mentioned the role of cognitive factors in his theory, but his overall research still focused on children's behavior learning and did not pay enough attention to cognitive factors. Therefore, Bandura's social cognitive theory still belongs to the behaviorism theory system. Undoubtedly, this is a more advanced behaviorism theory than Watson and Skinner, and it opens a new stage of behaviorism development.