From 400 BC to 300 AD, ancient Greece and Roman Empire flourished, and writing, calculation, philosophy and art all reached their peak at that time. The ancient Greeks believed that there were many gods who knew and understood the world in a more "natural" and "scientific" way. Hippocrates, known as the father of western medicine, tried to find out the causes and principles of diseases and proposed four kinds of body fluids: blood, mucus, yellow bile and black bile. The imbalance of these four body fluids is the cause of the disease. The purpose of inquiring about the medical history in detail, making a diagnosis after examination, and then implementing prescription medication and treatment is to restore the balance of these four body fluids. This theory and method of using natural and man-made factors to explain and treat diseases broke through the understanding and methods of primitive wizards.
Religion has always been accompanied by the development of science and medicine, from primitive god's rule to witch doctors. In the early days, religion dominated people's understanding of the world and medicine. Disease is God's punishment, and God and God are omnipotent. The clergy of the church also hold medical positions, and the church is like a clinic or a hospital. Hunting injury or war injury make amputation, fracture reduction, joint reduction and wound dressing become common medical means or methods. Opium and alcohol are sometimes used in anesthesia to relieve pain. Galen dissected a large number of animals in order to better understand the human body structure, which improved the surgical skills and success rate, and also helped to make practical surgical instruments. From a large number of hunting injuries and war injuries, the ancients had a direct understanding of the human body. Doctors can remove arrows, close wounds and even remove gallstones, hernias and cataracts. People also realized the relationship between health status and diseases, began to drink clean drinking water, and sewage system appeared. When the civilizations of ancient Greece and Rome were introduced into the Arab world, after hundreds of years (AD 700- 1500) of theoretical and practical development and perfection, Arab doctors used diet therapy, physical exercise, herbal and mineral medicines and alcohol to clean wounds; The hospital has been established, allowing doctors to communicate better, professionalizing treatment in different disciplines, facilitating patients and making operating rooms and pharmacies more professional. By 93 1 year, large hospitals began to train doctors Yamatonokusushi and issue licenses; Pharmacists patrol to ensure the correctness of prescriptions and prescriptions; Officials began to carry out safety certification and verification of prescriptions. Venectomy, nephrectomy, limb reduction and nasal inhalation anesthesia have been recorded as anesthesia methods. 1030, doctor Avicenna wrote the medical code, which was translated into Latin in 1200. It influenced the development of medieval European medicine for hundreds of years.
The European Renaissance from 1400 to 1700 pushed the development of culture, art, science and medicine to a new peak. Handwriting process is slow, the number is limited, and only a few people have the possibility of reading. The new printing technology has accelerated the publication of books and made them spread more widely and for a long time. The maturity of publishing technology is a revolution in information technology, which makes ideas and innovations spread throughout Europe and the world. Anatomy, the oldest medical research, has made great progress. Vesaliua uz and Leonardo da Vinci carefully dissected the human body and drew the first anatomical map. At that time, the anatomical study of the human body was still a big taboo. Vesaliua's magnum opus "Human Body Structure" broke through the old authoritative theory of human anatomy represented by Galen, accurately described the human body structure with a large number of practical anatomical data, and greatly enriched the knowledge of organs and human body systems. 1553, when the Spanish doctor Cel Vitus put forward the viewpoint that blood flows from the right ventricle to the lungs and then from the lungs to the left atrium according to anatomy, he was immediately criticized and persecuted by the opposition and the church, and was burned at the stake in the same year. It was not until A.D. 1628 that Harvey, a British doctor, published the theory of heart blood movement and demonstrated the circulation of blood. The heart is a muscle pump that promotes blood circulation. 16 1 year, Italian scientist Marby observed that tiny blood vessels are the roads connecting arteries and veins, which finally proved Harvey's circulation theory. Then people realized that the human body is composed of different organs and systems. According to Arab doctors' herbs and mineral medicines, quinine in cinchona was found to be effective in treating malaria with the discovery of new plants and minerals in the New World. With the development of global exploration, transportation and trade, diseases (pathogens) also follow these steps, go to the world and spread all over the world, such as plague (black death) and smallpox. 1347 The plague broke out in the European continent, which killed about 30% of the European population. Hospitals began to carry out medical education and train doctors; The basic surgical instruments are drills, saws and chisels. Industrial revolution in europe from 1700 to 1900 greatly influenced people's way of life and work. People migrate from rural areas to towns or big cities, and most of them live in areas with poor drinking water, poor housing and sanitation conditions and crowded population, which is easy to lead to the outbreak of infectious diseases, and many people die of cholera, dysentery, tuberculosis or pneumonia. The importance of environment to diseases has been deeply understood and developed.
Nightingale, a nurse working in the hospital, observed that the medical conditions at that time were poor and dirty, and 80% of the wounded in the hospital died of infection rather than primary trauma. She improved the hygiene standard, which greatly reduced the infection. She promoted the movement of hospital improvement and modernization, and formulated the design and nursing of the hospital. Although industrialization has made remarkable progress in surgical instruments, surgeons can only operate in the shortest time without anesthesia. Since 1840, the invention and use of anesthetics have greatly improved the surgical technique, expanded the scope of surgical indications, prolonged the operation time and improved the postoperative nursing technique. Liszt realized that postoperative infection often led to bacteremia and septicemia. He proposed to use formic acid disinfection technology to debride and clean surgical instruments. The application of this technique reduced the postoperative infection rate from 60% to 4%.
Smallpox has always been a fatal disease, and patients infected with smallpox often scab and suffer greatly. Surviving patients often leave skin scars. In modern times, we know that smallpox is caused by smallpox virus infection, which forms skin herpes and can infect internal organs. Most patients died of secondary infectious toxemia. Jenner, a British doctor, learned the technology of "human pox vaccine" from a Turkish doctor, but this technology often leads to the death of some vaccinated people, that is, the lack of 100% safety. He noticed that some people who had been exposed to vaccinia were not infected with smallpox. After a series of improvement and perfection, he carried out the first vaccination in 1796 and announced the vaccination results; He speculated that "vaccinia infection" (vaccine) prevented smallpox infection. But this is not immediately accepted by peers and people. About 50 years later 1840, vaccination against human pox was banned in Britain. 1853, compulsory vaccination. When Qin Na was vaccinated with vaccinia, people didn't know the mechanism of microbial infection, and they didn't know what the human immune system was. Pathogenic microorganisms can cause diseases. After a small amount of inactivated low-toxic microorganisms are inoculated into the body, the human immune system is activated to produce cellular immunity or pathogen-specific antibodies. The immune system recognizes specificity and pathogenicity and produces a chain reaction, which enables the body to prevent and avoid the spread and pathogenicity of specific pathogenic microorganisms in the body, thus enabling the body to prevent and resist specific pathogenic microorganisms. Therefore, people who are vaccinated gain immunity. About 200 years later 1977, the last case of natural smallpox was reported in Somalia, Africa. 1On May 8, 980, the World Health Organization (WHO) announced that human beings on the earth had got rid of smallpox and human smallpox disease had been eradicated. With the gradual deepening of the research on human immune system, many vaccine programs have been implemented, such as measles, mumps, polio, tuberculosis and hepatitis, which have greatly promoted human health.
1590 The invention of the microscope made people's understanding of the micro-world more detailed and concrete. The observation and study of various microorganisms led to the development of microbiology and made people realize the cause of infection. The discovery of pathogenic microorganisms makes people research and look for new drugs to treat infectious diseases. 1655, Hook observed the cells with his own compound microscope. 1674, Levinhook first observed protozoa, and nine years later 1683, he became the first person to discover the existence of "bacteria". 193 1 year, German scientists ruska and Noel assembled the first transmission electron microscope. After improvement, the resolution of the electron microscope reached 50 nanometers in the second year. The resolution of human eyes is about 0.1mm; The resolution of ordinary optical microscope is about 200 nanometers, which can observe and study the structure of tissues, cells and bacteria. The resolution of modern electron microscope is about 0. 1 nm, and the structure of organelles and viruses can be observed and studied.
1895, German physicist Roentgen (R&; OumlNtgen) took the first X-ray image with X-rays invented by several generations of scientists, which initiated a new era of medical image diagnosis and treatment. At present, there are computer tomography (the prototype of CT, 197 1), ultrasonic scanner, isotope scanner and magnetic resonance imaging instrument, which enable human beings to see not only the static images in various organisms, but also the structure, function or movement of internal organs, tissues or single molecules.
1922, Canadian biologists Wan Jin and Best discovered insulin and used it to treat diabetes. This disease was recorded in ancient Egyptian medical books 3500 years ago; After A.D. 1850, human beings considered it as pancreatic dysfunction from the autopsy of patients. Later, it was speculated that it was a chemical produced by pancreatic cells, which could regulate blood glucose metabolism in human body. Animal experiments have proved that dogs will suffer from diabetes after their pancreas is removed. The substance extracted from pancreas can regulate blood sugar when injected into animals. 1922, scientists successfully treated a diabetic patient of 14 years old with purified insulin. 1928, which proves that insulin is a protein. Insulin can regulate the uptake and utilization of blood sugar by cells in the body. It uses liver cells to absorb blood sugar and store it in the liver in the form of glycogen for the body to need and use. The limited insulin extracted from the pancreas of cattle and pigs is in short supply. 1955, the scientist Sanger (who won the Nobel Prize twice in 1958 and 1980) measured the insulin sequence for the first time, which made it possible to mass-produce human insulin through genetic engineering. 1965 September 17, the world's first synthetic protein-bovine insulin was born in China.
For a long time, human beings have no very effective preventive methods and therapeutic drugs for various infections, and the mortality caused by various infectious diseases ranks first. As early as 187 1, Lisde noticed that some molds could slow down the growth of other microorganisms. About 50 years later, Fleming observed the same phenomenon. The bacteria in the Petri dish were inhibited by accidentally contaminated Penicillium, and he realized that this mold produced a chemical to stop the growth of other bacteria. He cultivated mold, studied the effect of this mold on other pathogenic bacteria, and found penicillin.
Microbiology, anatomy, histopathology, cytology, biochemistry and molecular biology have made rapid progress in modern times; The development of metabolism, fat metabolism and sugar metabolism in protein; Discovery and development of energy metabolism; The essence of enzyme is protein, and protein is an important material basis of life. Many basic phenomena of life, such as substance metabolism, energy metabolism, nerves, respiration, digestion, endocrine, movement of molecules, cells, tissues, organs and organisms, are all related to enzymes and protein.
1865, Mendel published a plant hybridization experiment, which laid the foundation of genetics. 1928, Griffith discovered that pneumococcus contained "transforming factors". It was not until 1944 that Avery and others began to purify, analyze and identify the cell-free extract of SIV bacteria containing R-S transformation factor, and came to the conclusion that "transformation factor" is deoxyribonucleic acid, that is, DNA. With a full understanding of the chemical nature of DNA, 1952, Hershey demonstrated that phage DNA can carry the genetic information of the mother virus to future generations, and the scientific community finally accepted the theory that DNA is the carrier of genetic information. 195 1 year, the report of genetic transposon theory proves that genetic genes can be transferred and also have the regulatory function of controlling other gene switches, which opens a new chapter in the study of gene regulatory function.
1953, Watson and Crick put forward the model of DNA double helix structure, which was a milestone in the birth of molecular biology. It determines that DNA is the structural basis of biological genetic information molecules, base pairing is the basic way of nucleic acid replication and genetic information transmission, and finally establishes that deoxyribonucleic acid is the material basis of heredity. In 1960s, protein's genetic code encoded by messenger ribonucleic acid (mRNA) was deciphered, which proved that this set of genetic code is universal in the biological world and established the central rule of biological genetic information transmission:
The Human Genome Project was implemented in 1990, which is the largest global research plan and cooperation in the field of life sciences. It plans to determine all 3x 109 base pair sequences of human genome DNA, and then determine the primary structure of about 5000-65438+ 10,000 human genes, so that human beings can better control their own destiny. Because, when the human genome research plan was put forward, according to the technical conditions at that time, it would take about 1500 years to complete this project. However, with the rapid update of new technology, in 200 1 year, the complete sequence of human genome was completed and published. The research on the regulation mechanism of gene expression and cell signal transduction has become a new frontier field. There is still a long way to go to thoroughly understand the function, regulation, relationship and coordination of these gene products. 1963 A female carp was successfully cloned by DNA injection initiated by China scientist Tong Dizhou. 33 years later, Dolly the cloned sheep was born in 1996, and mankind entered the era of genetic engineering. From 65438 to 0997, scientist Prusiner discovered a brand-new protein pathogenic factor-prion.